A_tutorial.RmdSome brief background. Occassionally, I have students cheat on their essays or long-answer questions, typically by copying their answers from somewhere. My university provides access to plagiarism detection services like turnitin and safeassign, however these tools can be cumbersome to use. I have also sometimes resorted to using R for plagiarism detection. I am writing this package to collect my code for this purpose and put it one place.
Also, I am using this vignette as a pseudo blog to work out which kinds of functions to focus on building. So, this is a tutorial for myself.
I’m reviewing a paper right now. It’s very similar to another paper I’ve read by the same author. Whole chunks are copied from one previous paper to another. I can’t be bothered to “manually” figure out which parts are the same. It would be nice to have some R functions for this.
Ok, did some googling and tried out a bunch things. I found some great packages that already exist, so am going to play around with them a bit. These packages include textreuse, and tabulizer (which unfortunately depends on Java, but allows for importing pdfs with 2 columns, useful for scientific papers).
Here are some wrapper functions for importing pdfs or plain text, and doing some basic cleaning, involving, deleting new lines, deleting “-” which happens when lines run over in a .pdf, and converting everything to lowercase.
p1 <- clean_1_col_pdf(file="data/test1col.pdf")
p2 <- clean_2_col_pdf(file="data/CGM2006.pdf")
p3 <- clean_plain_txt(file="data/sometext.txt")The textreuse package can do some heavy lifting in terms of comparing documents for overlap. Below I use the align_local function to compare two of my papers. Looks like my self-plagiarism is limited to one of the methods sections, which makes sense because these two papers would have used the same methods.
library(textreuse)
p1 <- clean_2_col_pdf(file="data/CGM2006.pdf")
p2 <- clean_2_col_pdf(file="data/Crump et al. - 2008.pdf")
test <- align_local(p1,p2)[1] “participants were seated approximately 57 cm from the computer monitor at the beginning of each trial participants were presented with a fixation cross displayed in white against a black background for 1,000 #### msec ## followed by a blank interval of 250 msec ## next a color word prime was centrally displayed in white against a black background ### ######### ######### for 100 msec ## ########### following the prime display a colored ##### shape ##### probe display appeared participants were instructed to name the color of the probe as quickly and accurately as possible the probe was presented on the screen until the participant made a vocal response vocal response latencies were recorded with ##### a microphone and a voice activated relay timed the response from the onset of the probe display an experimenter coded each response as correct incorrect or spoil a spoil was defined as a trial in which noise unrelated to the onset of the intended response triggered the voice key after ### ####### the completion #### of #### the ### experiment participants were ## shown ########## pictures ## of congruent and incongruent ### trial ########### types in both ########## the ## high and low proportion congruent conditions the participants were then ######## asked #### to ### estimate ######## the ####### percentages of congruent ## and ######### incongruent ####### trial ########## types #### that occurred in both the high ##### and ### low #### proportion ## congruent ####### conditions ######### ### the ######### ## participants were ## asked #### to ########## give ### estimates ####### that #### summed to 100 for ## each #### of ####### the ###### proportion congruent conditions results for each participant response times rts for each condition were submitted to an outlier elimination procedure van selst jolicœur ######### 1994 mean rts were then computed from ##### those ### which ######### remained ############ these ### means ####### #### #### ########### were submitted to a repeated # measures anova that included proportion congruent high vs low and ## # congruency congruent vs incongruent as ######## within ######## participants ##### factors the mean rts in ### ##### ##### ### each condition collapsed across participants ## #### ########## are displayed in table 1.1 # the ##### ########## ## ######## ##### ### # ########### main effect of congruency was signif icant f 1,15 # 95.79 ## ###### mse 1,393.96 ###### p 0001 responses on ### congruent trials 486 msec were faster ### ## than responses on ### incongruent trials 577 ### msec ## more important the proportion congruent ## congruency interaction was significant f 1,15 # 7.87 ## ##### mse 133.11 ###### p 05 ### the stroop effect for the high proportion ######## condition was larger 99 ### msec ## than the stroop effect for the low proportion”
[1] “participants were seated approximately 57 cm from the computer monitor at the beginning of each trial participants were presented with a fixation cross displayed in white against a black background for ##### 1000 #### ms followed by a blank interval of 250 #### ms next a color word prime ### ######### displayed in white against a black background was presented centrally for 100 #### ms immediately following the prime display a ####### color ##### patch probe display appeared participants were instructed to name the color of the probe as quickly and accurately as possible the probe was presented on the screen until the participant made a vocal response vocal response latencies were recorded #### using a microphone and a voice activated relay timed the response from the onset of the probe display an experimenter coded each response as correct incorrect or spoil a spoil was defined as a trial in which noise unrelated to the onset of the intended response triggered the voice key ##### 2.2 results the ########## data ## from ### two ########## participants #### in ##### experiment ######## 1a ## ######### and ########### one ##### participant ##### in #### experiment ### 1b #### ### ### ########## ######### ########## ### ############ were #### excluded ##### from ## all ######## analyses ### because ########### of ######### an ### equipment ########### failure ##### associated ##### with #### ######## ## #### the #### voice ### key ### used ########## to ######### collect ########## responses for the remaining 15 participants #### in ##### each ## experiment #### rts ######### greater #### than ###### ## 100 ### ms #### from ## correct ### trials ########## ######### ########## ####### for #### ########### ######## ##### ### ### each condition were submitted to an outlier elimination procedure van selst ######## jolicoeur 1994 mean rts were then computed #### using ##### the ##### remaining ######## observations ##### the ##### results from both experiments were submitted to a ######## 2 ######## ##### #### ######## proportion congruent high vs low ### by 2 congruency congruent vs incongruent ## repeated ###### measures ############ anova ####### ### #### rts ## and error rates for each condition collapsed across participants in each experiment are displayed in table ### 2 ### 2.2.1 experiment 1a location there was a significant main effect of congruency ### ###### ##### f #### 1 ##### 14 386.70 mse ######## 403.17 p 0001 responses ## for congruent trials ### #### were faster 468 ms than responses ## for incongruent trials ### 570 #### ms more important the proportion congruent by congruency interaction was significant f #### 1 #### 14 12.11 mse ###### 184.02 p ## 005 the stroop effect for the high proportion location condition was larger ## 114 #### ms than the stroop effect for the low proportion”
The align_local function is interesting, it produces to strings, one for each document, that are lined up as well as possible, and identical in length. When words don’t line up, there is a fudge factor, and missing, deleted or different words are replaced with a hashtag. Here’s a quick and dirty way to figure out how many of the words exactly line up.
al_summary <- align_local_sum(test)
al_summary$sum
#> [1] 242[1] “participants were seated approximately 57 cm from the computer monitor at the beginning of each trial participants were presented with a fixation cross displayed in white against a black background for followed by a blank interval of 250 next a color word prime displayed in white against a black background for 100 following the prime display a probe display appeared participants were instructed to name the color of the probe as quickly and accurately as possible the probe was presented on the screen until the participant made a vocal response vocal response latencies were recorded a microphone and a voice activated relay timed the response from the onset of the probe display an experimenter coded each response as correct incorrect or spoil a spoil was defined as a trial in which noise unrelated to the onset of the intended response triggered the voice key the participants and in were of the the participants 100 for each condition were submitted to an outlier elimination procedure van selst 1994 mean rts were then computed were submitted to a proportion congruent high vs low congruency congruent vs incongruent rts each condition collapsed across participants are displayed in table main effect of congruency f mse p 0001 responses congruent trials were faster than responses incongruent trials more important the proportion congruent congruency interaction was significant f mse p the stroop effect for the high proportion condition was larger than the stroop effect for the low proportion”
This seems useful to me. The sentence that you are looking at didn’t necessarilly appear as consecutive words, however it gives a reasonable bird’s eye view of the overlap between two documents. If there are a big chunks here, one document was copied from another.
Another useful way to detect overlap is to use n-gram methods. Here, I use the tm package to create a document term matrix for two texts. The function allows you to set the number of n-grams. All unique n-grams between the texts are computed and counted for each text. Then I fid the proportion of common n-grams between the two texts. In general, if texts use the same words, they will have some overlap, but as the number of n-grams grows, texts that are not the same will have vanishingly small overlap.
ngram_proportion_same(p1,p2,1)
#> [1] 0.3208059
ngram_proportion_same(p1,p2,2)
#> [1] 0.1612376
ngram_proportion_same(p1,p2,3)
#> [1] 0.09709452
ngram_proportion_same(p1,p2,4)
#> [1] 0.07081316
ngram_proportion_same(p1,p2,5)
#> [1] 0.05574508By default, the overlapping ngrams are not returned, but they can be using show="ngrams". Note, that I’ve done some further cleaning the texts, this was necessary after I added another feature to show="ngrams", see next section. In general, it’s not clear to me how “clean” the text needs to be, and I’ll try to get back to this and figure it out.
p1 <- qdapRegex::rm_non_ascii(p1) %>%
tm::removeNumbers() %>%
qdapRegex::rm_non_words()
p2 <- qdapRegex::rm_non_ascii(p2) %>%
tm::removeNumbers() %>%
qdapRegex::rm_non_words()
out <- ngram_proportion_same(p1,p2,10,show="ngrams")
out$the_grams[1:10] # show first 10 ngrams
#> [1] "a century of research on the stroop effect an integrative"
#> [2] "a circle in diameter or a square in width that"
#> [3] "a first language had normal color vision and had normal"
#> [4] "a fixation cross displayed in white against a black background"
#> [5] "a microphone and a voice activated relay timed the response"
#> [6] "a mixed design anova with experiment location vs shape as"
#> [7] "a parallel distributed processing model of the stroop effect psychological"
#> [8] "a significant main effect of congruency f mse p responses"
#> [9] "a simple priming procedure involving the presentation of a color"
#> [10] "a solution to the effect of sample size on outlier"These two papers were on the same topic, and had many of the same references, which account for much of the overlap.
t1 <- "here is some text. I'd like to write about a few things. Then I'm going to compare what I wrote here with what I'm going to write in a little bit. After that, I'm going to make a function to look at the documents side by side, and bold the ngrams that are the same between the texts."
t2 <-"And some more text for you. This time I'm not as certain what I'm going to say, but I'm going to compare what I write here with what I wrote before. I'll do that in a little. The purpose is to get some text that I can use to make a report that lines up the documents, showing which ngrams were the same."
out <- ngram_proportion_same(t1,t2,3,show="ngrams", meta=c("A title","B title"))[1] “here is some text. i’d like to write about a few things. then I’M GOING TO COMPARE WHAT I wrote HERE WITH WHAT I’M GOING TO write in a little bit. after that, I’M GOING TO make a function to look at the documents side by side, and bold the ngrams that are the same between the texts.”
[1] “and some more text for you. this time i’m not as certain what I’M GOING TO say, but I’M GOING TO COMPARE WHAT I write HERE WITH WHAT i wrote before. i’ll do that in a little. the purpose is to get some text that i can use TO MAKE A report that lines up the documents, showing which ngrams were the same.”
out <- ngrams_analysis(t1,t2,range = 2:5)
attributes(out)
#> $names
#> [1] "ngram2" "ngram3" "ngram4" "ngram5"
attributes(out$ngram2)
#> $names
#> [1] "proportion" "the_grams" "a_title" "b_title" "a_print"
#> [6] "b_print"The ngrams_report function takes the output from the ngrams_analysis function and returns a print object for use in an .RMD document that prints to HTML. The print out is a summary of the analysis.
Here is an example using two papers published by Robert Sternberg, who has been identified as self-plagiarizing in some of his work (for example see). I thought this would be a good test case. I obtained that Sternberg published in 2010, where there was supposed overlap between the texts. Let’s use the ngrams_report function to find out. Remember, to set the knitr chunk option to results ="asis".
# load in papers
p1 <- clean_1_col_pdf("data/Sternberg2010.pdf")
p2 <- clean_1_col_pdf("data/Sternberg2010b.pdf")
# clean them up a a bit more
p1 <- LSAfun::breakdown(p1) %>%
qdapRegex::rm_white()
p2 <- LSAfun::breakdown(p2) %>%
qdapRegex::rm_white()
# run the ngram analysis
meta_titles <- c("Sternberg 2010A, School Psychology International",
"Sternberg 2010B, Journal of Cognitive Education and Psychology")
out <- ngrams_analysis(p1,p2,3:8, meta = meta_titles)
# print out results below
ngrams_report(out, print_n = 5, highlight_n = "ngram5", color="red")| ngram | proportion | count | total_unique |
|---|---|---|---|
| ngram3 | 0.4012662 | 3993 | 9951 |
| ngram4 | 0.3447862 | 3733 | 10827 |
| ngram5 | 0.2995246 | 3402 | 11358 |
| ngram6 | 0.2600509 | 3066 | 11790 |
| ngram7 | 0.2244881 | 2730 | 12161 |
| ngram8 | 0.1924646 | 2406 | 12501 |
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a basis for augmenting ap exams
a better world rather than destroy
a book of case studies of
a analytically sound b balanced c logical
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school psychology international retraction notice for the author s reprints and permissions WICS A NEW MODEL FOR sagepub co uk journalspermissions nav doi school psychology by journals sagepub com home spi robert j sternberg at the request of the journal editor and sage publishing the following article has been retracted sternberg r j WICS A NEW MODEL FOR school psychology school psychology international doi although the content in the aforementioned article is scientifically valid the article has substantial unreferenced overlap with the following works by the same author sternberg r j wics A NEW MODEL FOR COGNITIVE education journal OF COGNITIVE EDUCATION AND PSYCHOLOGY doi sternberg r j individual differences in cognitive development in goswami u ed blackwell handbook of childhood cognitive development pp doi ch therefore this article is retracted for reasons of redundant publication article school psychology international retracted wics a new the author s reprints and permissions model for school psychology sagepub co uk journalspermissions nav doi spi sagepub com robert j sternberg oklahoma state university stillwater ok usa abstract te this article presents A UNIFIED MODEL FOR COGNITIVE processing wics which is AN ACRONYM FOR WISDOM INTELLIGENCE and CREATIVITY SYNTHESIZED THE MODEL CAN BE APPLIED TO IDENTIFICATION ADMISSIONS diagnosis instruction and assessment i DISCUSS WHY THERE IS A d need for such A MODEL THEN I DESCRIBE traditional models after which i describe the wics model the article attempts to show how the wics model can BE APPLIED TO ADMISSIONS IDENTIFICATION as well as to instruction and assessment keywords ac CREATIVITY INTELLIGENCE WISDOM ADMISSIONS IDENTIFICATION instruction many things have changed since but in some fundamental respects education is not among them et now what I WANT IS FACTS TEACH these boys AND GIRLS NOTHING BUT FACTS facts ALONE ARE WANTED IN LIFE you CAN ONLY FORM THE MINDS of reasoning animals upon r FACTS STICK TO FACTS SIR DICKENS THESE WORDS MADE PERFECT sense to their ORIGINATOR THOMAS GRADGRIND AN UNIMAGINATIVE school master and to mr mcchoakumchild the teacher with whom he worked in CHARLES DICKENS NOVEL HARD TIMES for these times r BUT THE WHOLE OF DICKENS s NOVEL WAS DEVOTED TO PROVING gradgrind fatefully wrong EVEN IN THE MID TH CENTURY LITERATE PEOPLE LIKE DICKENS recognized facts are not enough it is DEPRESSING TO DISCOVER IN MANY of the same ideas were still coming from educational theorists E G RAVITCH THE FACTS only canard is BASED ON THE CORRECT PRESUPPOSITION that one cannot think critically without quite A LOT OF KNOWLEDGE TO think ABOUT AS RAVITCH PUTS IT P A BUT THE GRADGRINDERS then MOVE ON TO SETTING UP a straw man which corresponding author robert j sternberg oklahoma state university whitehurst stillwater ok usa email robert sternberg gmx com school psychology international ravitch does when she CURIOUSLY NOTES THAT KNOWLEDGE FREE EDUCATION HAS NEVER WORKED THIS is true but no one has ever ADVOCATED KNOWLEDGE FREE EDUCATION AND no one EVER WILL BECAUSE IT IS an oxymoron GIVEN THAT NO SCHOOL IN THE WORLD TEACHES THIS WAY it IS NOT CLEAR WHY SOME educators continue to BRING IT UP OTHER THAN FOR RHETORICAL POINTS THE MALIGNED construct critical thinking is EXACTLY WHAT PREVENTS US FROM CREATING SUCH STRAW MEN THE FAILURE OF THE KNOWLEDGE ONLY APPROACH IS SHOWN BY PEOPLE with encyclopedic knowledge BASES WHOSE MAIN CLAIM TO FAME IS WINNING TRIVIAL PURSUIT OR TELEVISION QUIZ GAMES IT is HARMLESS WHEN THEY WIN SUCH games BUT HARMFUL WHEN SCHOOLS OR educational theorists point to walking encyclopedias AS EXEMPLARS OF THE BEST OUR EDUCATION SYSTEM CAN PRODUCE te we have HAD MANY LEADERS IN THE united states AND ELSEWHERE WHO WERE EDUCATED at great places robert mcnamara ARCHITECT OF THE VIETNAM WAR WAS A BERKELEY AND HARVARD man donald rumsfeld initial ARCHITECT OF THE IRAQ WAR d was A PRINCETON MAN GEORGE W bush BY THE WAY WENT TO yale and harvard neville chamberlain was educated at the famed rugby school in the uk many of the ARCHITECTS OF THE FINANCIAL DISASTER OF WERE RECRUITED FROM THE BEST BUSINESS SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES RICHARD FULD FORMER chief executive officer CEO OF THE FAILED LEHMAN BROTHERS DID HIS MBA AT nyu indeed the firms that were ac largely BEHIND THE COLLAPSE OF THE FINANCIAL MARKETS IN RECRUITED ONLY from the BEST SCHOOLS WHERE STUDENTS PRESUMABLY learned lots of facts CERTAINLY THERE IS MORE TO learning and teaching than memorization of facts but what MORE THIS ARTICLE ADDRESSES THAT question et traditional psychometric models of intelligence psychometric theories are unique among the seven paradigms mentioned below in r relying primarily upon individual differences both in their formulation and in their verification or falsification psychometric researchers use techniques of data analysis to discover common patterns of individual differences across cognitive tests these patterns are then hypothesized to emanate from latent sources of individual differences namely cognitive abilities r the galtonian paradigm the earliest psychometric theory of note was that of galton galton proposed the existence of two general qualities that he believed to distinguish the more from the less intellectually able the two sources of individual difference are energy or the capacity for labour and sensitivity to physical stimuli galton devised psychophysical tests allegedly measuring these two sources of individual differences primarily the second sensitivity to physical stimuli examples of such tests were the ability to discriminate the weights of two objects and sensitivity to various pitches galton s beliefs were brought to the united states by j m cattell sternberg who proposed a series of psychophysical tests to measure individual differences in cognitive abilities the views of galton and cattell were dealt a blow by research done by wissler this research suggested that the tests in cattell s battery correlated neither with each other nor with college grades at columbia university but the galtonian approach has never quite disappeared indeed some cognitive research derives from work on individual differences in cognition done by hunt frost and lunneborg which the authors viewed as deriving from the galtonian tradition in the study of cognitive abilities others have followed up on this approach of studying individual differences in speed and efficiency of information processing deary jensen the binetian paradigm te d researchers in the tradition of binet do not believe that complex cognitive processing can be reduced to the accretion and accumulation of simple processing alfred binet and theodore simon commissioned in by the minister of public instruction in paris to create a test that would insure that children with developmental disability would receive an adequate education took a different tack from ac that of galton to these investigators the core of individual differences in cognitive development is to be found in judgement or good sense binet and simon pointed out that helen keller would have done quite poorly on galton s tests yet was intelligent in any meaningful sense of the word binet and simon proposed a theory consisting of three distinct elements direction adaptation and criticism these elements under other names such as et metacognition today still are viewed as important to individual differences in cognition direction consists in knowing what has to be done and how it is to be accomplished when children are required to add two numbers for example they r give themselves a series of instructions on how to proceed and these instructions form the direction of thought adaptation refers to children s selection and monitoring of their strategy during the course of task performance for example in solving a mathematics problem there may be several alternative strategies children can use see e g mcneil uttal jarvin sternberg siegler r siegler jenkins and adaptation would be involved in deciding which strategy to select criticism or control is the ability to criticize one s own thoughts and actions for example after solving a mathematical word problem a child might wish to evaluate the solution to make sure it is sensible the ideas of binet and simon were brought to the united states by a professor of psychology at stanford university l m terman who was involved in the construction of early versions of what has come to be called the stanford binet intelligence test the tasks on this test were very different from those used by cattell in his tests examples of tasks would include verbal absurdities which requires recognition of why each of a set of statements is foolish similarities and differences which requires children to say how each of two objects is school psychology international the same as and different from the other comprehension which requires children to solve practical problems of the sort encountered in everyday life and naming the days of the week the most recent version of this test is still widely used roid the most widely used test for children is the wechsler intelligence scale for children th edition wisc iv wechsler an outgrowth of binet but based upon a different framework for assessment wechsler instead of just providing an overall iq provided separate verbal and performance scores as well as a total score the ideas of binet are strongly linked to current notions about metacognition that is children s knowledge and control of their cognitive processing e g demetriou efklides platsidou dunloski metcalfe te flavell gopnik meltzoff goswami in a sense binet was the first or certainly one of the first metacognitive theorists recognizing the importance of children s understanding of their own behaviour for their cognitive d development indeed children with developmental disability who have low iqs are distinguished largely for their lack of adequate metacognitive functioning borkowski cavanaugh butterfield belmont campione brown ferrara factor theories ac galton binet and wechsler grounded their work in tests of intelligence other researchers used tests but grounded their work in theories of intelligence the researchers tested children with tests based on their theories and then analysed their data one technique of data analysis they used is factor analysis which analet yses correlations or covariances among cognitive tests in order to produce a set of hypothetical underlying factors abilities psychometric theories generally have been grounded in the factor as the basic unit of individual differences in cognitive r abilities the earliest such theory was that of spearman a theory that is still widely accepted today see essays in sternberg grigorenko according to spearman underlying all individual differences in cognitive abilities is a general factor or g factor which spearman believed to be due to differences in mental r energy this factor was alleged to permeate performance of all cognitive tests spearman also posited specific factors or s factors which were each specific to single tasks abilities not all theorists have accepted the idea of a single factor as responsible for most individual differences in cognition thurstone suggested that seven primary mental abilities underlie individual differences in cognition the seven factors in thurstone s theory are verbal comprehension measured by vocabulary tests number measured by tests of computation and simple mathematical problem solving memory measured by tests of picture and word recall perceptual speed measured by tests that require the test taker to recognize small differences in pictures or to cross out the a s in strings of letters space measured by tests sternberg requiring mental rotation of pictures or other objects verbal fluency measured by speed with which one can think of words beginning with a certain letter and inductive reasoning measured by tests such as analogies and number series completions in recent times many psychometric theorists have settled on hierarchical models as useful characterizations of individual differences in cognitive abilities these models combine the general factor of spearman with the primary kinds of mental abilities of thurstone by suggesting that the abilities are related hierarchically one such model developed by r cattell proposes that general intelligence at the top of the hierarchy comprises two major subfactors fluid ability and crystallized fluid ability represents the acquisition of new information or the te grasping of new relations and abstractions regarding known information as required in inductive reasoning tests such as analogies and series completions crystallized ability represents the accumulation of knowledge over the life span d of the child and is measured for example in tests of vocabulary of general information and of achievement subsumed within these two major subfactors are other more specific factors a more detailed hierarchical model based on a reanalysis of many data sets from hundreds of studies has been proposed by carroll at the top of the ac hierarchy is general ability in the middle of the hierarchy are various broad abilities such as learning and memory processes and the effortless production of many ideas at the bottom of the hierarchy are many narrow specific abilities such as spelling ability and reasoning speed other similar hierarchical models have been proposed as well e g gustafsson horn vernon according to psychometric theorists children differ from each other intellectuet ally primarily by virtue of differences in their abilities as revealed by scores on the underlying factors of intelligence herrnstein and murray among others e g jensen have argued that children with low levels of g or general r intelligence are handicapped both in school and in life and are less capable of succeeding in a wide variety of life activities including school performance getting along with others and later in life performance on the job many although certainly not all psychometric theorists tend to emphasize the role that genes play in the development of intelligence and tend to view levels of intelligence as relatively r fixed rather than as modifiable e g bouchard the wisdom intelligence creativity synthesized wics model the overall model proposed HERE IS CALLED WICS WHICH is AN ACRONYM FOR WISDOM INTELLIGENCE and CREATIVITY SYNTHESIZED THE MODEL DRAWS upon AND IS LARGELY CONSISTENT WITH the ideas of john dewey the BASIC IDEA IS THAT CITIZENS of the world NEED CREATIVITY TO FORM A vision OF WHERE THEY WANT TO go AND TO COPE WITH CHANGE in the environment analytical intelligence to ASCERTAIN WHETHER THEIR CREATIVE IDEAS ARE GOOD ONES PRACTICAL INTELLIGENCE to implement their ideas and to school psychology international persuade others OF THE VALUE OF THESE ideas AND WISDOM IN ORDER TO ensure THAT THE IDEAS WILL HELP ACHIEVE SOME ETHICALLY BASED COMMON GOOD OVER THE LONG AND short terms rather than JUST WHAT IS GOOD FOR them AND THEIR FAMILIES OR FRIENDS the wics model DIFFERS FROM THE TRADITIONAL MODEL which emphasizes primarily memory and ANALYTICAL SKILLS TRADITIONAL METHODS OF teaching AS WELL AS CONVENTIONAL ABILITY and achievement tests tend to EMPHASIZE STORED KNOWLEDGE OF FACTS and basic skills in analysing this information sternberg such knowledge AND SKILLS ARE IMPORTANT FOR example one CANNOT THINK CREATIVELY TO GO BEYOND WHAT IS KNOWN IF one DOES NOT HAVE THE KNOWLEDGE to MOVE FORWARD SIMILARLY ONE CANNOT APPLY WHAT ONE KNOWS IF ONE KNOWS NOTHING BUT THE problem IS THAT STORED KNOWLEDGE CAN be inert AND ESSENTIALLY UNUSABLE ANALYTICAL SKILLS can help one te evaluate existing ideas BUT CANNOT HELP ONE COME up with IDEAS OF ONE S OWN nor can THEY HELP ONE ADJUST TO A WORLD THAT IS CHANGING rapidly AND THAT LEAVES BEHIND PEOPLE who cannot flexibly ADAPT TO ITS SHIFTING DEMANDS d the RISK OF THE TRADITIONAL SYSTEM of instruction and assessment is that it CREATES SELF FULFILLING PROPHECIES WHEREBY those who do not test well ARE NOT GIVEN FULL OPPORTUNITIES IN COLLEGE TO SUCCEED STERNBERG wics is A FRAMEWORK THAT CAN HELP us get BEYOND SELF FULFILLING PROPHECIES IN admissions instruction and assessment sternberg ac in the wics model ANALYTICAL INTELLIGENCE AS EXEMPLIFIED IN critical thinking is important contrary to what ravitch AND OTHER GRADGRINDERS HAVE ARGUED it is what enables people to DISTINGUISH DECENT POLITICIANS FROM DEMAGOGUES AND HEALTHFUL FOODS FROM WIDELY advertised junk foods ALSO IMPORTANT IS CREATIVITY THE ABILITY TO RESPOND FLEXIBLY TO rapidly changing situations AND WORLD EVENTS AND PRACTICAL intelligence the ABILITY ACTUALLY TO APPLY WHAT you learn in et school to real life CREATIVITY IS NEEDED TO FIND WAYS TO SOLVE NEW PROBLEMS such AS HOW TO LIVE ON A GREATLY REDUCED INCOME LACK OF SUCH THINKING LEADS PEOPLE to get stuck in ENTRENCHED IDEAS THAT NO LONGER work practical intelligence represents r the difference between GETTING ON THE WRITTEN DRIVERS test and being ABLE TO DRIVE OR THE difference between knowing you should not DRINK AND DRIVE AND ACTUALLY ACTING ON THIS KNOWLEDGE MOST important of ALL IS WISE AND ETHICAL thinking putting what you LEARN TO GOOD USE THAT helps build A BETTER WORLD RATHER THAN DESTROY IT ORIGINALLY FOR EXAMPLE many thought that terrorists were r poorly educated AND IGNORANT IT THEN TURNED out that MANY OF THEM ARE QUITE well educated they LACK NOT FACTS BUT WISDOM AND POSITIVE ETHICS KNOWLEDGE IS necessary but not sufficient for critical CREATIVE PRACTICAL AND WISE THINKING if ALL SCHOOLS DO IS STICK to facts they will poorly serve NOT ONLY OUR CHILDREN BUT A WORLD MANY OF WHOSE inhabitants are lacking NOT SO MUCH IN KNOWLEDGE AS IN HOW TO EMPLOY it for good ENDS THE SKILLS PEOPLE NEED TO SUCCEED IN REAL WORLD CAREERS DO NOT ALWAYS CLOSELY resemble the skills needed for success in elementary secondary AND EVEN TERTIARY SCHOOLS LIFE rarely presents multiple choice or short ANSWER PROBLEMS IT PRESENTS CHALLENGES to which the FULL WICS MODEL IS RELEVANT IN OUR OWN WORK WE have APPLIED THE WICS MODEL TO admissions instruction and assessment sternberg see e g grigorenko et al sternberg sternberg grigorenko zhang sternberg the rainbow project COLLABORATORS STERNBERG TORFF GRIGORENKO IN this article i DISCUSS HOW WE HAVE DONE so IDENTIFICATION AND ADMISSIONS THROUGH WICS is IT POSSIBLE THAT MANY STUDENTS who ARE NOT NOW BEING IDENTIFIED as having impressive credentials FOR GIFTED PROGRAMS OR FOR COLLEGE OR GRADUATE WORK MIGHT in fact be so identified IF THEY WERE ASSESSED IN A WAY THAT LOOKED AT creative AND PRACTICAL AS WELL AS analytical forms OF SKILLS THE RAINBOW PROJECT sought to te ANSWER THIS QUESTION WITH REGARD to university admissions AT THE UNDERGRADUATE LEVEL STERNBERG sternberg the rainbow PROJECT COLLABORATORS THE PROJECT WAS A COLLABORATION AMONG COLLEGES AND universities as well as d two HIGH SCHOOLS THE PROJECT UTILIZED the creativity AND INTELLIGENCE ASPECTS OF THE wics model BECAUSE IT WAS INITIATED PRIOR TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF WICS AND WAS BASED ON THE earlier theory of successful INTELLIGENCE STERNBERG WISDOM WAS NOT ASSESSED THE RAINBOW MEASURES SUPPLEMENT the sat REASONING TEST WHICH IS WIDELY ac used in the UNITED STATES FOR UNDERGRADUATE ADMISSIONS THE SAT REASONING TEST MEASURES reading mathematical AND WRITING SKILLS AT THE time we DID THIS STUDY THE WRITING component had not been added A WIDE VARIETY OF STUDIES HAVE SHOWN THE UTILITY OF THE SAT AS A PREDICTOR of COLLEGE SUCCESS E G HEZLETT et al especially AS MEASURED BY GPA GRADE point AVERAGE IN THE RAINBOW PROJECT data were collected AT SCHOOLS ACROSS THE UNITED et states including eight four year colleges five community colleges and two HIGH SCHOOLS PARTICIPANTS WERE STUDENTS predominantly IN THEIR FIRST YEAR OF college r or their final year of HIGH SCHOOL IN THIS ARTICLE i discuss ANALYSES ONLY FOR COLLEGE STUDENTS because they were the only ONES FOR WHOM WE HAD AVAILABLE COLLEGE PERFORMANCE THE FINAL number of participants included in these ANALYSES WAS BASELINE MEASURES OF standardized test scores AND HIGH SCHOOL GRADE POINT averr age were collected to EVALUATE THE PREDICTIVE VALIDITY OF CURRENT TOOLS USED FOR COLLEGE admission criteria and to provide A CONTRAST FOR OUR CURRENT measures ALL MATERIALS WERE ADMINISTERED EITHER in paper AND PENCIL FORMAT OR ON the COMPUTER VIA THE WORLD WIDE web the measures of ANALYTICAL SKILLS WERE PROVIDED BY the sat PLUS ANALYTICAL ITEMS WE INVENTED one ASSESSMENT WAS FIGURING OUT MEANINGS of NEOLOGISMS ARTIFICIAL WORDS FROM NATURAL contexts students see A NOVEL WORD EMBEDDED IN A PARAGRAPH AND HAVE TO infer its meaning from the context in others ASSESSMENTS STUDENTS COMPLETED SERIES OF numbers AND FIGURAL MATRICES WE MEASURED CREATIVE SKILLS BY MULTIPLE CHOICE but ALSO OPEN ENDED MEASURES ONE open ended MEASURE REQUIRED WRITING TWO SHORT STORIES WITH A SELECTION FROM school psychology international among unusual titles such AS THE OCTOPUS S SNEAKERS ANOTHER ONE REQUIRED ORALLY TELLING two stories based upon choices of picture collages and A THIRD REQUIRED CAPTIONING CARTOONS from among various options practical skills were measured BY MULTIPLE CHOICE ITEMS BUT also performancebased measures called situational judgement INVENTORIES ONE ASSESSMENT PRESENTED MOVIES showing everyday SITUATIONS THAT CONFRONT COLLEGE STUDENTS such AS ASKING FOR A LETTER of recommendation from A PROFESSOR WHO SHOWS THROUGH nonverbal CUES THAT HE DOES NOT recognize you very well or FIGURING OUT WHAT TO DO after eating A MEAL BUT NOT HAVING THE MONEY TO PAY FOR it A COMMON SENSE QUESTIONNAIRE PROVIDED everyday BUSINESS PROBLEMS SUCH AS BEING assigned to work with A COWORKER WHOM ONE CANNOT stand AND A COLLEGE LIFE QUESTIONNAIRE provided everyte day COLLEGE SITUATIONS FOR WHICH A solution was required the rainbow ASSESSMENTS DOUBLED PREDICTION OF FRESHMAN year academic success over sat scores ALONE IF SATS WERE COMBINED with high school gpa d the rainbow assessments still increased prediction BY IN OTHER WORDS THE new assessments provided very substantial gains over traditional measures ALTHOUGH ONE IMPORTANT GOAL OF THE PRESENT STUDY WAS TO PREDICT SUCCESS IN COLLEGE ANOTHER important goal involved DEVELOPING MEASURES THAT REDUCE RACIAL AND ETHNIC GROUP DIFFERENCES IN mean LEVELS WE FOUND THAT OUR assessments ac reduced RACE AND ETHNICITY DIFFERENCES RELATIVE to traditional assessments of ABILITIES LIKE THE SAT ALTHOUGH THE GROUP DIFFERENCES ARE NOT completely balanced out these FINDINGS SUGGESTED THAT MEASURES CAN BE DESIGNED THAT REDUCE ETHNIC and racial group DIFFERENCES ON STANDARDIZED TESTS PARTICULARLY for historically disadvantaged groups like black AND LATINO STUDENTS THESE FINDINGS MAY HAVE IMPLICATIONS FOR REDUCING adverse impact in college et ADMISSIONS IN I MOVED FROM yale university where I WAS IBM PROFESSOR OF psychology and education AND THE LEAD COLLABORATOR IN the rainbow project to r tufts university where i became DEAN OF THE SCHOOL OF arts AND SCIENCES TUFTS UNIVERSITY HAS strongly emphasized the role of ACTIVE CITIZENSHIP IN EDUCATION SO it seemed like AN IDEAL SETTING TO PUT into practice some of the ideas FROM THE RAINBOW PROJECT IN COLLABORATION WITH DEAN OF ADMISSIONS lee COFFIN WE INSTITUTED PROJECT KALEIDOSCOPE which REPRESENTS AN IMPLEMENTATION OF THE ideas of rainbow but r goes BEYOND THAT PROJECT TO INCLUDE in its ASSESSMENT THE CONSTRUCT OF WISDOM sternberg we PLACED ON THE APPLICATION FOR ALL OF THE OVER STUDENTS APPLYING EACH YEAR TO ARTS sciences AND ENGINEERING AT TUFTS QUESTIONS designed to assess wics the questions are OPTIONAL WHEREAS THE RAINBOW PROJECT was done as A SEPARATE HIGH STAKES TEST administered with A PROCTOR THE KALEIDOSCOPE PROJECT was done as section of the tufts specific PART OF THE UNIVERSITY UNDERGRADUATE APPLICATION IT JUST WAS NOT practical to administer A SEPARATE HIGH STAKES TEST such AS THE RAINBOW ASSESSMENT FOR admission to one university tufts moreover the ADVANTAGE OF KALEIDOSCOPE IS THAT it GOT US AWAY FROM THE high stakes testing sternberg SITUATION IN WHICH STUDENTS MUST ANSWER COMPLEX QUESTIONS IN VERY short amounts OF TIME UNDER INCREDIBLE PRESSURE as examples A CREATIVE QUESTION ASKED STUDENTS to WRITE STORIES WITH TITLES SUCH AS THE END OF MTV or confessions of a middleschool bully ANOTHER CREATIVE QUESTION ASKED STUDENTS what THE WORLD WOULD BE LIKE if some historical event had COME OUT DIFFERENTLY FOR EXAMPLE if rosa parks had GIVEN UP HER SEAT ON the bus yet another creative question A NONVERBAL ONE GAVE STUDENTS an opportunity to design a NEW PRODUCT OR AN ADVERTISEMENT for A NEW PRODUCT A PRACTICAL question queried how students had persuaded friends of AN UNPOPULAR IDEA THEY HELD a wisdom question asked students how A PASSION THEY HAD COULD be APPLIED TOWARD A COMMON GOOD WE FOUND THAT KALEIDOSCOPE SCORES CORRELATE ONLY MINIMALLY OR LESS with te the sat at the SAME TIME THE KINDS OF ethnic DIFFERENCES ENCOUNTERED ON THE SAT and even the rainbow assessments disappeared students who scored at high levels on the kaleidoscope assessment have shown increased participation in d extracurricular activities during THEIR FIRST YEAR OF COLLEGE they performed academically at levels comparable to students who excelled in ways other than through kaleidoscope if one controls for conventional academic assessments sat and high school gpa kaleidoscope significantly adds to prediction of first year university gpa thus the ASSESSMENT PROVIDED A WAY OF predicting ac leadership involvement independently of ethnic group AND WITHOUT ANY SACRIFICE IN ACADEMIC SKILLS SUCH PROJECTS CAN BE DONE AT THE GRADUATE level AS WELL WE DESIGNED AN admissions test for a large AND HIGHLY RATED BUSINESS SCHOOL IN THE MIDWEST WE SHOWED that we could increase prediction AND DECREASE BOTH SEX AND ETHNIC GROUP DIFFERENCES IN ADMISSIONS hedlund wilt nebel asfhord sternberg these et assessments can ALSO BE APPLIED FOR MEASURING achievement as well as abilities stemler et al THE ASSESSMENT PROJECTS I DESCRIBE ABOVE ARE FOR COLLEGE STUDENTS however we r have applied similar techniques AT OTHER LEVELS ONE BATTERY AURORA IS USED FOR IDENTIFICATION of gifted CHILDREN OF ROUGHLY AGES CHART et al it assesses ANALYTICAL CREATIVE AND PRACTICAL SKILLS in the verbal quantitative AND FIGURAL DOMAINS IT ALSO contains A TEACHER AND PARENT ASSESSMENT of the children ANOTHER BATTERY THAT WE DEVISED for admissions purposes at A PRIVATE SCHOOL IN THE r united STATES CHOATE ROSEMARY HALL CAN be USED FOR SELECTION OF STUDENTS FOR PRIVATE SECONDARY SCHOOL ADMISSIONS so the general ideas DESCRIBED HERE CAN BE APPLIED at ANY LEVEL OF EDUCATION FROM the primary GRADES UPWARD ONE MIGHT WONDER how one assesses ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS THAT SEEM so subjective the assessment is through well DEVELOPED RUBRICS FOR EXAMPLE WE assess analytical responses on the BASIS OF THE EXTENT TO which they are A ANALYTICALLY SOUND B BALANCED c logical and d organized we ASSESS CREATIVE RESPONSES ON THE basis of how A ORIGINAL AND B COMPELLING they ARE AS WELL AS ON THE BASIS OF THEIR C APPROPRIATENESS TO THE TASK WITH which the students were presented we ASSESS PRACTICAL RESPONSES ON THE BASIS OF HOW FEASIBLE THEY are with respect school psychology international to A TIME B PLACE C human d material resources AND E HOW PERSUASIVE THEY are we ASSESS WISDOM BASED RESPONSES ON the EXTENT TO WHICH THEY A promote a common good by B BALANCING ONE S OWN with others with larger interests c over the long AND SHORT TERMS THROUGH D the INFUSION OF POSITIVE PROSOCIAL ETHICAL values teaching AND ASSESSING FOR WICS CAN we teach FOR WICS THE KINDS OF skills AND ATTITUDES THAT REALLY MATTERS IN LIFE AND IN JOBS there ARE MANY TECHNIQUES THAT CAN BE USED TO TEACH FOR wics te sternberg GRIGORENKO STERNBERG JARVIN GRIGORENKO THESE techniques CAN BE USED IN ANY subject matter area AND AT ANY LEVEL TEACHING ANALYTICALLY MEANS ENCOURAGING STUDENTS TO a analyse b critique d c judge d compare AND CONTRAST E EVALUATE AND f ASSESS WHEN TEACHERS REFER TO teaching for critical thinking THEY TYPICALLY MEAN TEACHING FOR ANALYTICAL THINKING HOW DOES SUCH teaching translate into instructional and assessment ACTIVITIES CONSIDER VARIOUS EXAMPLES ACROSS the school curriculum ac a analyse the development of the CHARACTER OF HEATHCLIFF IN WUTHERING heights literature B CRITIQUE THE DESIGN OF the EXPERIMENT JUST GONE OVER IN CLASS OR IN A READING showing that certain plants grew BETTER IN DIM LIGHT THAN in bright sunlight biology et c judge the artistic merits OF ROY LICHTENSTEIN S COMIC book ART DISCUSSING ITS STRENGTHS AS WELL AS ITS WEAKNESSES AS fine art art d compare AND CONTRAST THE RESPECTIVE NATURES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION AND r the FRENCH REVOLUTION POINTING OUT WAYS BOTH IN WHICH THEY WERE SIMILAR AND THOSE IN WHICH they were DIFFERENT HISTORY E EVALUATE THE validity OF THE FOLLOWING SOLUTION TO a mathematical problem AND DISCUSS WEAKNESSES IN THE solution if there ARE ANY MATHEMATICS F ASSESS the strategy used BY THE WINNING PLAYER IN THE TENNIS MATCH YOU JUST r observed stating what techniques SHE USED IN ORDER TO DEFEAT HER OPPONENT PHYSICAL EDUCATION teaching CREATIVELY MEANS ENCOURAGING STUDENTS TO A CREATE B INVENT C discover D IMAGINE IF E SUPPOSE that AND F PREDICT TEACHING FOR creativity requires teachers not only to SUPPORT AND ENCOURAGE CREATIVITY BUT ALSO TO ROLE MODEL IT AND TO REWARD IT WHEN it is displayed sternberg LUBART STERNBERG WILLIAMS IN OTHER words teachers need NOT ONLY TO TALK THE sternberg talk but ALSO TO WALK THE WALK consider some examples of instructional or assessment ACTIVITIES THAT ENCOURAGE STUDENTS TO think creatively A CREATE AN ALTERNATIVE ENDING TO THE SHORT STORY YOU JUST READ THAT REPRESENTS A different way things might HAVE GONE FOR THE MAIN CHARACTERS IN THE STORY LITERATURE b invent A DIALOGUE BETWEEN AN AMERICAN TOURIST IN PARIS AND A frenchman he encounters on the STREET FROM WHOM HE IS ASKING DIRECTIONS ON HOW TO GET TO THE RUE PIGALLE french C DISCOVER THE FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICAL PRINCIPLE THAT UNDERLIES ALL OF the following problems each of which DIFFERS FROM THE OTHERS IN THE SURFACE STRUCTURE OF THE te problem but not IN ITS DEEP STRUCTURE PHYSICS D IMAGINE IF THE GOVERNMENT of china keeps evolving over the COURSE OF THE NEXT YEARS IN MUCH THE SAME WAY it has BEEN EVOLVING WHAT DO YOU d believe THE GOVERNMENT OF CHINA WILL BE LIKE IN YEARS GOVERNMENT political science e suppose THAT YOU WERE TO DESIGN one ADDITIONAL INSTRUMENT TO BE PLAYED in a symphony orchestra for future COMPOSITIONS WHAT MIGHT THAT INSTRUMENT BE LIKE AND WHY MUSIC ac f predict changes that ARE LIKELY TO OCCUR IN the vocabulary or GRAMMAR OF SPOKEN SPANISH IN the border areas of the rio GRANDE OVER THE NEXT YEARS as A RESULT OF CONTINUOUS INTERACTIONS between spanish AND ENGLISH SPEAKERS LINGUISTICS TEACHING PRACTICALLY MEANS ENCOURAGING STUDENTS TO A APPLY B USE C put et into practice d implement e employ AND F RENDER PRACTICAL WHAT THEY KNOW SUCH TEACHING MUST relate to the real practical NEEDS OF THE STUDENTS NOT JUST TO WHAT WOULD BE practical for individuals OTHER THAN THE STUDENTS STERNBERG et al r CONSIDER SOME EXAMPLES A APPLY the formula FOR COMPUTING COMPOUND INTEREST TO A PROBLEM PEOPLE ARE LIKELY to face when planning for retirement economics mathematics B USE YOUR KNOWLEDGE OF GERMAN TO GREET A NEW acquaintance in berlin r german C PUT INTO PRACTICE WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED FROM TEAMWORK in football to making A CLASSROOM TEAM PROJECT SUCCEED PHYSICAL EDUCATION D IMPLEMENT A business PLAN YOU HAVE WRITTEN IN A SIMULATED BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT BUSINESS e employ the formula for distance rate AND TIME TO COMPUTE A distance mathematics f render practical a proposed design for A NEW BUILDING THAT WILL not work in the AESTHETIC CONTEXT OF THE SURROUNDING buildings ALL OF WHICH ARE AT least years old architecture school psychology international teaching FOR WISDOM MEANS ENCOURAGING STUDENTS to A TRY TO FIND A common good b see things FROM OTHERS POINTS OF VIEW AS WELL AS YOUR OWN c BALANCE YOUR OWN INTERESTS WITH those of others AND OF INSTITUTIONS D LOOK AT THE LONG TERM AS well AS THE SHORT TERM E ask how you can infuse positive ETHICAL VALUES INTO YOUR DECISION making AND F REALIZE THAT IN real life what is effective AND OFTEN EVEN TRUE OR perceived to BE TRUE VARIES OVER TIME and place sternberg examples would BE A WHAT MIGHT BE A JUST SOLUTION FOR THE common good in the israeli palestinian CONFLICT POLITICAL SCIENCE B DID native AMERICANS VIEW SETTLERS WHO CAME west as settlers or AS INVADERS AND WHY HISTORY te C SHOULD WALL STREET TRADERS get bonuses if they have lost money FOR THEIR CLIENTS ECONOMICS D D HOW IS GLOBAL WARMING going to effect life on earth IN THE LONG TERM GEOLOGY CLIMATOLOGY E IS IT EVER ETHICAL TO BOMB ENEMY TERRITORIES where CIVILIANS LIVE PHILOSOPHY F HOW DOES WHAT WORKS IN AN intimate relationship change over time psychology ac smart BUT FOOLISH PEOPLE ARE SUSCEPTIBLE to one or MORE OF SIX FALLACIES STERNBERG A UNREALISTIC OPTIMISM THEY BELIEVE they are so smart that whatever they DO WILL WORK OUT JUST FINE REGARDLESS OF WHETHER IT really makes sense et B EGOCENTRISM THEY START TO view DECISIONS ONLY IN TERMS OF how the decisions benefit them C OMNISCIENCE THEY THINK THEY are all knowing they don t know what they don t r know D OMNIPOTENCE THEY THINK THEY CAN DO WHATEVER THEY WANT e invulnerability they think they ARE SO SMART THEY CAN get away with ANYTHING THEY DO F ETHICAL disengagement they believe that ethical behaviour is important for r others BUT NOT FOR THEMSELVES OUR view that we might HAVE SUCCESS IN TEACHING IN these ways DATES BACK AT LEAST TO a study IN WHICH MY COLLABORATORS AND i gave A TEST THAT WE HAD devised to over high school students ACROSS THE UNITED STATES IN order to select students ON THE BASIS OF ANALYTICAL creative and practical ABILITIES STERNBERG GRIGORENKO FERRARI CLINKENBEARD the identification was prior to their BEING PLACED INTO SECTIONS TO TAKE A COLLEGE LEVEL SUMMER psychology COURSE WHEN WE DIVIDED THE students INTO SUCH GROUPS WE NOTICED something that AT THE TIME WAS UNEXPECTED students in the high ANALYTICAL GROUP WHO EXCELLED IN the abilities measured BY CONVENTIONAL TESTS WERE FOR the MOST PART WHITE AND MIDDLE class many had been sternberg previously identified as gifted for OTHER PROGRAMS STUDENTS IN THE high creative AND HIGH PRACTICAL GROUP WERE ethnically diverse AND MANY HAD NEVER BEFORE been identified AS GIFTED THE QUESTION OF COURSE IS WHETHER THOSE IDENTIFIED AS STRONG IN THE ALTERNATIVE ways i e creatively or practically ACTUALLY PERFORMED AT HIGH LEVELS THE ANSWER WAS CLEAR WHEN students were taught in A WAY THAT MATCHED THEIR patterns of ABILITIES AT LEAST SOME OF the time they EXCELLED IN OTHER WORDS THE creatively AND PRACTICALLY ORIENTED STUDENTS DID excel so long as THE WAY THEY WERE TAUGHT matched AT LEAST SOME OF THE time THE WAY THEY LEARNED GOOD teachers use A VARIETY OF TEACHING METHODS to reach DIVERSE LEARNING STYLES OF THEIR students so any student taught in A WAY THAT IS RESPONSIVE to his or HER PATTERN OF ABILITIES CAN excel te what effects DOES TEACHING FOR WICS HAVE on ACHIEVEMENT AFTER THIS STUDY MY colleagues and I WENT ON TO SHOW that teaching to DIVERSE STYLES OF LEARNING MEMORY analytical creative PRACTICAL WISDOM BASED DOES INDEED d improve ACHIEVEMENT RELATIVE TO TEACHING THAT emphasizes just traditional memory ANALYTICAL PATTERNS OF LEARNING AND thinking grigorenko jarvin sternberg sternberg grigorenko zhang sternberg torff grigorenko i taught for wics in A COURSE IN THE PSYCHOLOGY department at tufts ac university the idea is THAT IF WE SELECT STUDENTS FOR WICS WE SHOULD TEACH ACCORDING TO WICS AS WELL so that how students ARE TAUGHT MATCHES HOW THEY ARE SELECTED THE COURSE IS open to undergraduates at all levels in ALL FIELDS OF SPECIALIZATION AND HAS NO PREREQUISITES THE COURSE on leadership involves A TEXTBOOK ON THEORIES AND RESEARCH ON LEADERSHIP BUT ALSO A BOOK OF CASE STUDIES of leadership AND TWO BOOKS BY LEADERSHIP theorists ON THEIR OWN VIEWS ON leadership considered as well are et four ADDITIONAL FEATURES OF THE COURSE first in every CLASS EXCEPT THE FIRST AND the last A LEADER COMES AND SPEAKS to students for about minutes on his or HER LEADERSHIP EXPERIENCES THE LEADERS r COME FROM ALL DOMAINS OF life including politics FINANCE MANAGEMENT THE ARTS SPORTS religion AND THE LIKE AN ADDITIONAL minutes IS THEN SPENT IN THE class ASKING QUESTIONS OF AND HAVING A DISCUSSION WITH THE LEADER students INTERACTIONS WITH THE LEADERS GIVE them A CHANCE TO DEVELOP AND also to challenge their own beliefs about leadership r second every CLASS EXCEPT THE LAST INVOLVES an ACTIVE LEADERSHIP EXERCISE FOR EXAMPLE in the first class a shill joined the students AND PRETENDED TO BE ONE of them after i went through the SYLLABUS THE SHILL CHALLENGED IT AND COMPLAINED THAT IT WAS inadequate in A VARIETY OF WAYS STUDENTS were AMAZED AT THE SHILL S AUDACITY WHEN HE WAS DONE with his complaints i thanked him AND THEN NOTED TO THE CLASS THAT EVERY LEADER SOONER or later confronts public CHALLENGES TO HIS OR HER AUTHORITY THE QUESTION IS NOT WHETHER IT WILL OR WILL not happen it will BUT RATHER HOW THE LEADER handles such challenges students DIVIDED THEMSELVES INTO THREE GROUPS AND THEN SIMULATED HOW THEY would handle public challenges in ANOTHER CLASS STUDENTS HAD TO hire A DEAN THEY DIVIDED THEMSELVES into three groups one simulated the formation of A VISION STATEMENT THE SECOND simulated a job school psychology international interview and the third simulated A PERSUASION INTERVIEW TO ENTICE the selected CANDIDATE TO COME IN YET another CLASS STUDENTS SIMULATED HOW THEY would DEAL WITH AN INCOMPETENT TEAM member and in ANOTHER EACH OF THREE GROUPS formulated A PROPOSAL TO IMPROVE THE university they then HAD TO PERSUADE THE CLASS ACTING AS FUNDERS TO FUND their project third students HAD TO DO BOTH INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP PROJECTS THE INDIVIDUAL projects involved their APPLYING LEADERSHIP CONCEPTS TO THEIR own LEADERSHIP AND THE LEADERSHIP OF others whom they interviewed the GROUP PROJECT INVOLVED THEIR APPLYING principles from the course to analysing the leadership of A MAJOR KNOWN LEADER SOME of their choices were bill CLINTON FORMER PRESIDENT OF THE united states BILL GATES FORMER CEO OF microsoft and kenneth lay former te CEO OF THE NOW DEFUNCT AND FAILED ENERGY COMPANY ENRON fourth exams EMPHASIZED USING WHAT ONE HAD LEARNED THE FINAL EXAMINATION FOR example involved the story of A LEADER FROM THE TIME SHE FIRST TOOK A LEADERSHIP d job until the time she was CONSIDERING LEAVING IT THE STUDENTS had to analyse her leadership performance at every step ALONG THE WAY IN SUM teaching FOR WICS SEEMS TO IMPROVE school achievement at A VARIETY OF LEVELS AND in A VARIETY OF SUBJECT MATTER areas conclusion ac wics is of COURSE NOT THE ONLY MODEL that can be APPLIED TO IDENTIFICATION ADMISSIONS INSTRUCTION AND ASSESSMENT GARDNER HAS PRESENTED a well known model of MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES THAT IS APPEALING ALTHOUGH PERHAPS IN NEED OF rigorous empirical test FEUERSTEIN HAS PRESENTED A MODEL of et cognitive modifiability through mediated learning experience that ALSO CAN BE APPLIED IN schools IN EARLIER TIMES MANY SCHOLARS found THE MODEL OF GUILFORD ATTRACTIVE ALTHOUGH ITS EMPIRICAL FOUNDATIONS HAVE proved questionable r BECAUSE OF THE USE OF PROCRUSTEAN ROTATIONS OF FACTORIAL AXES baltes presented A MODEL OF INTELLECTUAL SELECTION optimization AND COMPENSATION THAT ALSO COULD be ADAPTED FOR SCHOOL USE AND HAS BEEN USED IN COGNITIVE training for the ELDERLY E G SCHAIE WILLIS ANDERSON S MODEL OF ADAPTIVE control of human thought ACT ALSO PRESENTS POSSIBILITIES FOR use in school r psychology WICS THUS PROVIDES ONE AMONG A NUMBER OF UNIFIED MODELS for identification and admissions diagnosis instruction and assessment the wics model can BE USED AT ANY LEVEL AND FOR ANY SUBJECT MATTER an advantage of the MODEL IS THAT IT GOES BEYOND MORE TRADITIONAL MODELS EMPHASIZING memory and analytical learning and as A RESULT ENABLES ALL STUDENTS to CAPITALIZE ON STRENGTHS AND COMPENSATE for or CORRECT WEAKNESSES IT FURTHER REDUCES ethnic AND OTHER DIFFERENCES IN PERFORMANCE commonly found in traditional ASSESSMENTS IT THUS PROVIDES A basis for school psychology that REPRESENTS THE REALITIES OF THE st CENTURY RATHER THAN THOSE OF a bygone era sternberg references ANDERSON J R THE ARCHITECTURE of cognition CAMBRIDGE MA HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS anderson j r the ADAPTIVE NATURE OF HUMAN CATEGORIZATION psychological review ANDERSON J R RULES OF THE MIND HILLSDALE NJ ERLBAUM baltes P B ON THE INCOMPLETE ARCHITECTURE OF HUMAN ONTOGENY SELECTION optimization AND COMPENSATION AS FOUNDATIONS OF developmental theory american psychologist 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THREE SETTINGS THREE SAMPLES three syllabi contemporary EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY GRIGORENKO E L jarvin l tan m sternberg r j something new in the d garden assessing creativity in academic domains psychology science quarterly GUILFORD J P COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY s AMBIGUITIES SOME SUGGESTED REMEDIES PSYCHOLOGICAL review gustafsson j e hierarchical models of the structure of cognitive abilities in r j sternberg ed advances in the psychology of human intelligence vol ac pp hillsdale nj erlbaum HEDLUND J WILT J M nebel k r ASHFORD S J STERNBERG R j ASSESSING PRACTICAL INTELLIGENCE IN BUSINESS school admissions A SUPPLEMENT TO THE GRADUATE management ADMISSIONS TEST LEARNING AND INDIVIDUAL differences herrnstein r j murray c the bell curve new york ny free press HEZLETT S KUNCEL N VEY A ONES D CAMPBELL J camara w j the eteffectiveness OF THE SAT IN PREDICTING success EARLY AND LATE IN COLLEGE A COMPREHENSIVE META ANALYSIS PAPER presented at the ANNUAL MEETING OF THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF MEASUREMENT IN EDUCATION seattle wa horn j l theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence in r j sternberg ed the r encyclopedia of human intelligence vol pp new york ny macmillan hunt e g frost n lunneborg c individual differences in intelligence a new approach to cognition in g h bower ed the psychology of learning and motivation vol pp new york ny academic press jensen a r the g factor the science of mental ability westport ct praeger r greenwood mcneil n m uttal d h JARVIN L STERNBERG R J should you show me the money concrete objects both hurt and help performance on mathematics problems learning and instruction ravitch d september CRITICAL THINKING YOU NEED KNOWLEDGE boston globe a roid g h stanford binet intelligence scales th edn rolling meadows il riverside schaie K W WILLIS S L CAN DECLINE IN INTELLECTUAL FUNCTIONING in the ELDERLY BE REVERSED DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY siegler r s emerging minds the process of change in children s thinking new york ny oxford university press sternberg siegler r jenkins e a how children discover new strategies hillsdale nj erlbaum spearman c general intelligence objectively determined and measured american journal of psychology spearman c the abilities of man london macmillan stemler s E GRIGORENKO E L JARVIN l sternberg r J USING THE THEORY OF successful intelligence as A BASIS FOR AUGMENTING AP exams in psychology AND STATISTICS CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY stemler S STERNBERG R J GRIGORENKO E L JARVIN L SHARPES D K USING THE THEORY of successful intelligence as A FRAMEWORK FOR DEVELOPING ASSESSMENTS in AP PHYSICS CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY sternberg r J SUCCESSFUL INTELLIGENCE NEW YORK ny plume te sternberg r J WHY SCHOOLS SHOULD TEACH for wisdom the BALANCE THEORY OF WISDOM IN educational settings educational psychologist sternberg r j wisdom intelligence AND CREATIVITY SYNTHESIZED NEW YORK ny d cambridge university press sternberg r j FOOLISHNESS IN R J STERNBERG j jordan EDS HANDBOOK OF WISDOM PSYCHOLOGICAL perspectives pp new york ny cambridge university press sternberg r j how CAN WE SIMULTANEOUSLY ENHANCE BOTH ACADEMIC EXCELLENCE AND DIVERSITY COLLEGE and university ac sternberg r j FINDING STUDENTS WHO ARE WISE practical AND CREATIVE THE CHRONICLE OF higher education b sternberg r j THE RAINBOW AND KALEIDOSCOPE PROJECTS A NEW PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH TO undergraduate admissions european psychologist sternberg r j forsythe g B HEDLUND J HORVATH J SNOOK S WILLIAMS W M wagner r k grigorenko e l practical INTELLIGENCE IN EVERYDAY LIFE NEW et york ny cambridge university press sternberg R J GRIGORENKO E L eds the general factor of intelligence how general is it mahwah nj lawrence erlbaum associate associateS STERNBERG R J GRIGORENKO E L TEACHING FOR SUCCESSFUL intelligence nd edn r thousand oaks ca corwin pres presS STERNBERG R J GRIGORENKO E L FERRARI M CLINKENBEARD p A TRIARCHIC ANALYSIS OF AN APTITUDE TREATMENT INTERACTION EUROPEAN JOURNAL of psychological assessment sternberg r j grigorenko E L ZHANG L F STYLES OF LEARNING AND THINKING r matter in instruction AND ASSESSMENT PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL science sternberg R J JARVIN L GRIGORENKO E L TEACHING FOR WISDOM intelligence creativity AND SUCCESS THOUSAND OAKS CA corwin sternberg R J LUBART T I DEFYING THE CROWD CULTIVATING CREATIVITY in A CULTURE OF CONFORMITY NEW york ny free press sternberg R J THE RAINBOW PROJECT COLLABORATORS THE RAINBOW PROJECT ENHANCING THE SAT THROUGH ASSESSMENTS OF ANALYTICAL PRACTICAL AND CREATIVE SKILLS intelligence sternberg r j college admissions for the st century CAMBRIDGE MA HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS sternberg r j torff B GRIGORENKO E L TEACHING triarchically improves school ACHIEVEMENT JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY school psychology international sternberg R J WILLIAMS W M HOW TO DEVELOP STUDENT CREATIVITY ALEXANDRIA VA ASSOCIATION FOR SUPERVISION and curriculum development thurstone l l primary mental abilities chicago il university of chicago press vernon p e the structure of human abilities london methuen wechsler d manual for the wechsler intelligence scales for children th edn wisc iv san antonio tx harcourt assessment wissler c the correlation of mental and physical tests psychological review monograph supplement te robert j sternberg is provost senior vice president and professor of psychology at oklahoma state university he is president of the international association for cognitive education and psychology d ac et r r
ournal OF COGNITIVE EDUCATION AND PSYCHOLOGY olume number wics A NEW MODEL FOR COGNITIVE education robert j sternberg tufts university this article presents A UNIFIED MODEL FOR COGNITIVE education wics which is AN ACRONYM FOR WISDOM INTELLIGENCE CREATIVITY SYNTHESIZED THE MODEL CAN be APPLIED TO IDENTIFICATION ADMISSIONS INSTRUCTION and assessment i first DISCUSS WHY THERE IS A need for such A MODEL THEN I DESCRIBE the model next i show how the model can BE APPLIED TO ADMISSIONS IDENTIFICATION then i show how the MODEL CAN BE APPLIED TO instruction and assessment finally i present some conclusions keywords CREATIVITY INTELLIGENCE WISDOM ADMISSIONS IDENTIFICATION instruction now what I WANT IS FACTS TEACH these boys AND GIRLS NOTHING BUT FACTS facts ALONE ARE WANTED IN LIFE you CAN ONLY FORM THE MINDS of reasoning animals upon FACTS STICK TO FACTS SIR DICKENS THESE WORDS MADE PERFECT sense to their ORIGINATOR THOMAS GRADGRIND AN UNIMAGINATIVE chool master and mr mcchoakumchild his hired teacher in CHARLES DICKENS NOVEL HARD TIMES for these times BUT THE WHOLE OF DICKENS NOVEL WAS DEVOTED TO PROVING gradgrind atefully wrong EVEN IN THE MID TH CENTURY LITERATE PEOPLE LIKE DICKENS recognized facts re not enough it is DEPRESSING TO DISCOVER IN MANY of the same ideas coming from ducational theorists E G RAVITCH THE FACTS only canard is BASED ON THE CORRECT PRESUPPOSITION that one cannot think ritically without quite A LOT OF KNOWLEDGE TO think ABOUT AS RAVITCH PUTS IT P A BUT THE GRADGRINDERS i e those who believe like thomas gradgrind that the purpose of chooling is to memorize facts then MOVE ON TO SETTING UP a straw man which ravitch does when she CURIOUSLY NOTES THAT KNOWLEDGE FREE EDUCATION HAS NEVER WORKED THIS is true but o one has ever ADVOCATED KNOWLEDGE FREE EDUCATION AND no one EVER WILL BECAUSE IT IS an xymoron GIVEN THAT NO SCHOOL IN THE WORLD TEACHES THIS WAY it IS NOT CLEAR WHY SOME educaors continue to BRING IT UP OTHER THAN FOR RHETORICAL POINTS THE MALIGNED construct critical hinking is EXACTLY WHAT PREVENTS US FROM CREATING SUCH STRAW MEN THE FAILURE OF THE KNOWLEDGE ONLY APPROACH IS SHOWN BY PEOPLE with encyclopedic knowldge BASES WHOSE MAIN CLAIM TO FAME IS WINNING TRIVIAL PURSUIT OR TELEVISION QUIZ GAMES IT c springer publishing company doi HARMLESS WHEN THEY WIN SUCH games BUT HARMFUL WHEN SCHOOLS OR educational theorists nt to walking encyclopedias AS EXEMPLARS OF THE BEST OUR EDUCATION SYSTEM CAN PRODUCE we have HAD MANY LEADERS IN THE united states AND ELSEWHERE WHO WERE EDUCATED at at places robert mcnamara ARCHITECT OF THE VIETNAM WAR WAS A BERKELEY AND HARVARD n donald rumsfeld initial ARCHITECT OF THE IRAQ WAR was A PRINCETON MAN GEORGE W sh BY THE WAY WENT TO yale and harvard many of the ARCHITECTS OF THE FINANCIAL DISASTER OF WERE RECRUITED FROM THE BEST BUSINESS SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES RICHARD FULD FORMER ef executive officer CEO OF THE FAILED LEHMAN BROTHERS DID HIS MBA AT nyu indeed firms that were largely BEHIND THE COLLAPSE OF THE FINANCIAL MARKETS IN RECRUITED ONLY m the BEST SCHOOLS WHERE STUDENTS PRESUMABLY learned lots of facts at the same time of course many of the people who went to the top schools have been y successful in their careers and have made a positive difference to the world and good iversities certainly do not teach students merely to memorize facts the only point here hat great schooling does not ensure by any means wise or ethical use of the knowledge ned CERTAINLY THERE IS MORE TO learning and cognitive education than memorization of facts t what MORE THIS ARTICLE ADDRESSES THAT question the wisdom intelligence creativitysynthesized wics model e OVERALL MODEL PROPOSED HERE IS CALLED WICS WHICH IS AN acronym for wisdom intellince CREATIVITY SYNTHESIZED THE MODEL DRAWS upon AND IS LARGELY CONSISTENT WITH the ideas john dewey the BASIC IDEA IS THAT CITIZENS of the world NEED CREATIVITY TO FORM A ion OF WHERE THEY WANT TO go AND TO COPE WITH CHANGE in the environment analytical intelence to ASCERTAIN WHETHER THEIR CREATIVE IDEAS ARE GOOD ONES PRACTICAL INTELLIGENCE to implent their ideas and to persuade others OF THE VALUE OF THESE ideas AND WISDOM IN ORDER TO sure THAT THE IDEAS WILL HELP ACHIEVE SOME ETHICALLY BASED COMMON GOOD OVER THE LONG AND ort terms rather than JUST WHAT IS GOOD FOR them AND THEIR FAMILIES OR FRIENDS the different ments of the model work together and can mutually support each other that is why the onym ends with the s for synthesized the most successful thinkers will synthesize se various elements into a coherent and unified stream of thought the wics model DIFFERS FROM THE TRADITIONAL MODEL which emphasizes primarily memand ANALYTICAL SKILLS TRADITIONAL METHODS OF teaching AS WELL AS CONVENTIONAL ABILITY and ievement tests tend to EMPHASIZE STORED KNOWLEDGE OF FACTS and basic skills in analyzing s information sternberg such knowledge AND SKILLS ARE IMPORTANT FOR example e CANNOT THINK CREATIVELY TO GO BEYOND WHAT IS KNOWN IF one DOES NOT HAVE THE KNOWLEDGE MOVE FORWARD SIMILARLY ONE CANNOT APPLY WHAT ONE KNOWS IF ONE KNOWS NOTHING BUT THE blem IS THAT STORED KNOWLEDGE CAN be inert AND ESSENTIALLY UNUSABLE ANALYTICAL SKILLS can p one evaluate existing ideas BUT CANNOT HELP ONE COME up with IDEAS OF ONE S OWN nor THEY HELP ONE ADJUST TO A WORLD THAT IS CHANGING rapidly AND THAT LEAVES BEHIND PEOPLE who not flexibly ADAPT TO ITS SHIFTING DEMANDS the RISK OF THE TRADITIONAL SYSTEM is that it CREATES SELF FULFILLING PROPHECIES WHEREBY those o do not test well ARE NOT GIVEN FULL OPPORTUNITIES IN COLLEGE TO SUCCEED STERNBERG cs is A FRAMEWORK THAT CAN HELP us get BEYOND SELF FULFILLING PROPHECIES IN admissions truction and assessment sternberg in the wics model ANALYTICAL INTELLIGENCE AS EXEMPLIFIED IN critical thinking is imporant contrary to what ravitch AND OTHER GRADGRINDERS HAVE ARGUED it is what enables eople to DISTINGUISH DECENT POLITICIANS FROM DEMAGOGUES AND HEALTHFUL FOODS FROM WIDELY dvertised junk foods ALSO IMPORTANT IS CREATIVITY THE ABILITY TO RESPOND FLEXIBLY TO rapidly hanging situations AND WORLD EVENTS AND PRACTICAL intelligence the ABILITY ACTUALLY TO APPLY WHAT you learn in school to real life CREATIVITY IS NEEDED TO FIND WAYS TO SOLVE NEW PROBLEMS uch AS HOW TO LIVE ON A GREATLY REDUCED INCOME LACK OF SUCH THINKING LEADS PEOPLE to get tuck in ENTRENCHED IDEAS THAT NO LONGER work practical intelligence represents the difference etween GETTING ON THE WRITTEN DRIVERS test and being ABLE TO DRIVE OR THE difference etween knowing you should not DRINK AND DRIVE AND ACTUALLY ACTING ON THIS KNOWLEDGE MOST important of ALL IS WISE AND ETHICAL thinking putting what you LEARN TO GOOD USE THAT elps build A BETTER WORLD RATHER THAN DESTROY IT ORIGINALLY FOR EXAMPLE many thought that errorists who intentionally attack innocent people including innocent women and children were poorly educated AND IGNORANT IT THEN TURNED out that MANY OF THEM ARE QUITE well eduated they LACK NOT FACTS BUT WISDOM AND POSITIVE ETHICS KNOWLEDGE IS necessary but not ufficient for critical CREATIVE PRACTICAL AND WISE THINKING if ALL SCHOOLS DO IS STICK to facts hey will poorly serve NOT ONLY OUR CHILDREN BUT A WORLD MANY OF WHOSE inhabitants are lackng NOT SO MUCH IN KNOWLEDGE AS IN HOW TO EMPLOY it for good ENDS THE SKILLS PEOPLE NEED TO SUCCEED IN REAL WORLD CAREERS DO NOT ALWAYS CLOSELY resemble he skills needed to succeed in elementary secondary AND EVEN TERTIARY SCHOOLS LIFE rarely resents multiple choice or short ANSWER PROBLEMS IT PRESENTS CHALLENGES to which the FULL WICS MODEL IS RELEVANT IN OUR OWN WORK WE have APPLIED THE WICS MODEL TO admissions nstruction and assessment see e g sternberg grigorenko zhang sternberg he rainbow project COLLABORATORS STERNBERG TORFF GRIGORENKO IN this essay DISCUSS HOW WE HAVE DONE so wics sternberg is sometimes referred to as the augmented theory of successful ntelligence because it expands upon a previous framework proposed in that earlier theory sternberg the earlier theory spoke of the importance of analytical creative and pracical intelligence for attainment of life goals wics adds wisdom in the recognition that life oals should further not only one s personal agenda but also an agenda that balances one s wn needs WITH THOSE OF OTHERS AND society in order to achieve some kind of common good because wisdom was added later earlier studies do not include measured wisdom as a depenent variable whereas later ones do IDENTIFICATION AND ADMISSIONS THROUGH WICS s IT POSSIBLE THAT MANY STUDENTS who ARE NOT NOW BEING IDENTIFIED as having impressive redentials FOR GIFTED PROGRAMS OR FOR COLLEGE OR GRADUATE WORK MIGHT in fact be so identiied IF THEY WERE ASSESSED IN A WAY THAT LOOKED AT creative AND PRACTICAL AS WELL AS analytical orms OF SKILLS THE RAINBOW PROJECT sought to ANSWER THIS QUESTION WITH REGARD to university dmissions AT THE UNDERGRADUATE LEVEL STERNBERG sternberg the rainbow PROJECT COLLABORATORS THE PROJECT WAS A COLLABORATION AMONG COLLEGES AND universities as well as HIGH SCHOOLS THE PROJECT UTILIZED the creativity AND INTELLIGENCE ASPECTS OF THE wics model BECAUSE IT WAS INITIATED PRIOR TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF WICS AND WAS BASED ON THE earier theory of successful INTELLIGENCE STERNBERG WISDOM WAS NOT ASSESSED THE RAINBOW MEASURES SUPPLEMENT the sat REASONING TEST WHICH IS WIDELY used in he UNITED STATES FOR UNDERGRADUATE ADMISSIONS these tests typically correlate about with t year undergraduate grade point average gpa THE SAT REASONING TEST MEASURES read mathematical AND WRITING SKILLS AT THE time we DID THIS STUDY THE WRITING component d not been added A WIDE VARIETY OF STUDIES HAVE SHOWN THE UTILITY OF THE SAT AS A PREDICTOR COLLEGE SUCCESS E G HEZLETT et al kobrin camara milewski schmidt nter especially AS MEASURED BY GPA GRADE point AVERAGE IN THE RAINBOW PROJECT DATA WERE COLLECTED AT SCHOOLS ACROSS THE UNITED STATES INclud clud four year colleges community colleges and HIGH SCHOOLS PARTICIPANTS WERE STUDENTS predominantly IN THEIR FIRST YEAR OF college or their final r of HIGH SCHOOL IN THIS ARTICLE i discuss ANALYSES ONLY FOR COLLEGE STUDENTS because they re the only ONES FOR WHOM WE HAD AVAILABLE COLLEGE PERFORMANCE THE FINAL number of parpants included in these ANALYSES WAS BASELINE MEASURES OF standardized test scores AND HIGH SCHOOL GRADE POINT average were lected to EVALUATE THE PREDICTIVE VALIDITY OF CURRENT TOOLS USED FOR COLLEGE admission criteria d to provide A CONTRAST FOR OUR CURRENT measures ALL MATERIALS WERE ADMINISTERED EITHER in per AND PENCIL FORMAT OR ON the COMPUTER VIA THE WORLD WIDE web the measures of ANALYTICAL SKILLS WERE PROVIDED BY the sat PLUS ANALYTICAL ITEMS WE INVENTED e ASSESSMENT WAS FIGURING OUT MEANINGS of NEOLOGISMS ARTIFICIAL WORDS FROM NATURAL conts students see A NOVEL WORD EMBEDDED IN A PARAGRAPH AND HAVE TO infer its meaning from context in other ASSESSMENTS STUDENTS COMPLETED SERIES OF numbers AND FIGURAL MATRICES WE MEASURED CREATIVE SKILLS BY MULTIPLE CHOICE but ALSO OPEN ENDED MEASURES ONE opended MEASURE REQUIRED WRITING TWO SHORT STORIES WITH A SELECTION FROM among unusual titles ch AS THE OCTOPUS S SNEAKERS ANOTHER ONE REQUIRED ORALLY TELLING two stories based upon oices of picture collages and A THIRD REQUIRED CAPTIONING CARTOONS from among various ions practical skills were measured BY MULTIPLE CHOICE ITEMS BUT also performance based meaes called situational judgment INVENTORIES ONE ASSESSMENT PRESENTED MOVIES showing ryday SITUATIONS THAT CONFRONT COLLEGE STUDENTS such AS ASKING FOR A LETTER of recommenion from A PROFESSOR WHO SHOWS THROUGH nonverbal CUES THAT HE DOES NOT recognize you y well or FIGURING OUT WHAT TO DO after eating A MEAL BUT NOT HAVING THE MONEY TO PAY FOR A COMMON SENSE QUESTIONNAIRE PROVIDED everyday BUSINESS PROBLEMS SUCH AS BEING igned to work with A COWORKER WHOM ONE CANNOT stand AND A COLLEGE LIFE QUESTIONNAIRE vided everyday COLLEGE SITUATIONS FOR WHICH A solution was required hedlund et al dlund wilt nebel ashford sternberg sternberg et al factor analysis revealed three factors one factor showed high loadings by tests that re performance based measures of creative skills another factor showed high loadings performance based measures of practical skills the third factor expected to be analytl comprised all of the multiple choice tests in other words the multiple choice tests ardless of what they were supposed to measure all loaded highly on a single g like analytl factor multiple choice items thus proved inadequate for distinctively measuring creative d practical skills the rainbow ASSESSMENTS DOUBLED PREDICTION OF FRESHMAN year academic success over t scores ALONE IF SATS WERE COMBINED with high school gpa the rainbow assessments l increased prediction BY IN OTHER WORDS THE new assessments provided very subntial gains over traditional measures we believe that there are good reasons for these reases in prediction one is that in the university the student adopts to a novel environnt relative to what he or she is used to and needs flexibly to adjust to the expectations of t new environment a creative skill another reason is that a major part of the freshman first year in college is figuring out how to study at the college level and in particular how to tudy for different kinds of assessment a practical skill still another major part of the first ear is figuring out what professors expect for papers and exams also practical ALTHOUGH ONE IMPORTANT GOAL OF THE PRESENT STUDY WAS TO PREDICT SUCCESS IN COLLEGE ANOTHER mportant goal involved DEVELOPING MEASURES THAT REDUCE RACIAL and ethnic group differences n mean LEVELS WE FOUND THAT OUR assessments reduced RACE AND ETHNICITY DIFFERENCES RELATIVE o traditional assessments of ABILITIES LIKE THE SAT ALTHOUGH THE GROUP DIFFERENCES ARE NOT erfectly reduced these FINDINGS SUGGESTED THAT MEASURES CAN BE DESIGNED THAT REDUCE ETHNIC nd racial group DIFFERENCES ON STANDARDIZED TESTS PARTICULARLY for historically disadvantaged roups like black AND LATINO STUDENTS THESE FINDINGS MAY HAVE IMPLICATIONS FOR REDUCING dverse impact in college ADMISSIONS IN I MOVED FROM yale university where I WAS IBM PROFESSOR OF psychology and ducation AND THE LEAD COLLABORATOR IN the rainbow project to tufts university where i ecame DEAN OF THE SCHOOL OF arts AND SCIENCES TUFTS UNIVERSITY HAS strongly emphasized he role of ACTIVE CITIZENSHIP IN EDUCATION SO it seemed like AN IDEAL SETTING TO PUT into pracice some of the ideas FROM THE RAINBOW PROJECT IN COLLABORATION WITH DEAN OF ADMISSIONS ee COFFIN WE INSTITUTED PROJECT KALEIDOSCOPE which REPRESENTS AN IMPLEMENTATION OF THE deas of rainbow but goes BEYOND THAT PROJECT TO INCLUDE in its ASSESSMENT THE CONSTRUCT OF WISDOM sternberg in press a in press b we PLACED ON THE APPLICATION FOR ALL OF THE OVER STUDENTS APPLYING EACH YEAR TO ARTS ciences AND ENGINEERING AT TUFTS QUESTIONS designed to assess wics sternberg coffin n press the questions were OPTIONAL WHEREAS THE RAINBOW PROJECT WAS DONE AS A SEPARATE igh stakes test administered with A PROCTOR THE KALEIDOSCOPE PROJECT was done as a section f the tufts specific PART OF THE UNIVERSITY UNDERGRADUATE APPLICATION IT JUST WAS NOT practical o administer A SEPARATE HIGH STAKES TEST such AS THE RAINBOW ASSESSMENT FOR admission to ne university tufts moreover the ADVANTAGE OF KALEIDOSCOPE IS THAT it GOT US AWAY FROM THE igh stakes testing SITUATION IN WHICH STUDENTS MUST ANSWER COMPLEX QUESTIONS IN VERY short mounts OF TIME UNDER INCREDIBLE PRESSURE as examples A CREATIVE QUESTION ASKED STUDENTS o WRITE STORIES WITH TITLES SUCH AS THE END OF MTV or confessions of a middle school bully ANOTHER CREATIVE QUESTION ASKED STUDENTS what THE WORLD WOULD BE LIKE if some historcal event had COME OUT DIFFERENTLY FOR EXAMPLE if rosa parks had GIVEN UP HER SEAT ON the us yet another creative question A NONVERBAL ONE GAVE STUDENTS an opportunity to design NEW PRODUCT OR AN ADVERTISEMENT for A NEW PRODUCT A PRACTICAL question queried how stuents had persuaded friends of AN UNPOPULAR IDEA THEY HELD a wisdom question asked stuents how A PASSION THEY HAD COULD be APPLIED TOWARD A COMMON GOOD in the first year slightly more than half of applicants completed the kaleidoscope quesions in subsequent years the proportion has hovered around two thirds simply answering he questions has been found to improve probability of admission only slightly by about ut getting a top score a or a on kaleidoscope is substantially correlated with admission the early results at tufts illustrate that a highly selective college can introduce an unconentional exercise into its undergraduate admissions process without disrupting the quality f the entering class it is important to underscore the point that academic achievement has lways been and remains the most important dimension of tufts undergraduate admission rocess since we introduced the kaleidoscope pilot in applications have remained oughly steady or increased slightly to record levels and the mean sat scores of accepted nd enrolling students have increased to new highs as well in addition we have not detected tatistically meaningful ethnic group differences on the kaleidoscope measures controlling the academic rating given to applicants by admissions officers which combines infortion from the transcript and standardized tests students rated for kaleidoscope achieved atistically significantly higher academic averages in their undergraduate work than stunts who were not so rated by the admissions staff in addition research found that students h higher kaleidoscope ratings were more involved in and reported getting more out of racurricular active citizenship and leadership activities in the first year at tufts the positive effects of kaleidoscope on the university s undergraduate applicant pool d enrolled class cannot and should not be disentangled from the effects of other initiaes especially increased undergraduate financial aid which at tufts is always need based tiatives like kaleidoscope can help identify an able diverse group of students but without equate financial aid and university commitment the effects of the program will not be fully own in actual matriculation figures WE FOUND THAT KALEIDOSCOPE SCORES CORRELATE ONLY MINIMALLY OR LESS with the sat at SAME TIME THE KINDS OF ethnic DIFFERENCES ENCOUNTERED ON THE SAT and even the rainbow essments disappeared overall the ASSESSMENT PROVIDED A WAY OF predicting leadership olvement independently of ethnic group AND WITHOUT ANY SACRIFICE IN ACADEMIC SKILLS SUCH PROJECTS CAN BE DONE AT THE GRADUATE level AS WELL WE DESIGNED AN admissions test for arge AND HIGHLY RATED BUSINESS SCHOOL IN THE MIDWEST WE SHOWED that we could increase diction AND DECREASE BOTH SEX AND ETHNIC GROUP DIFFERENCES IN ADMISSIONS hedlund et al in the case of the measure we tested out at this business school we also found that ereas our measure predicted performance on an independent project that was a major part the business school curriculum the gmat did not these kinds of assessments can ALSO BE APPLIED FOR MEASURING achievement as well as lities stemler et al stemler grigorenko jarvin and sternberg have nd that including creative and practical items in augmented psychology and statistics vanced placement examinations can reduce ethnic group differences on the tests such minations are generally taken by high school students who are identified as sufficiently ted to take college level courses my colleagues and i modified advanced placement tests psychology and statistics additionally to assess ANALYTICAL CREATIVE AND PRACTICAL SKILLS re is an example in psychology a variety of explanations have been proposed to account for why people sleep describe the restorative theory of sleep memory an alternative theory is an evolutionary theory of sleep sometimes referred to as the preservation and protection theory describe this theory and compare and contrast it with the restorative theory state what you see as the two strong points and two weak points of this theory compared to the restorative theory analytical how might you design an experiment to test the restorative theory of sleep briefly describe the experiment including the participants materials procedures and design creative a friend informs you that she is having trouble sleeping based on your knowledge of sleep what kinds of helpful and health promoting suggestions might you give her to help her fall asleep at night practical my colleagues and i found that by asking such questions as in the other studies we were e both to increase the range of skills we tested and substantially to reduce ethnic group ferences in test scores thus it is possible to reduce group differences not only in tests of ptitudes but also in tests of achievement recently we have found very similar results for ap hysics as those we found for ap psychology and statistics stemler sternberg grigorenko arvin sharpes THE ASSESSMENT PROJECTS I DESCRIBE ABOVE ARE FOR COLLEGE STUDENTS however we have pplied similar techniques AT OTHER LEVELS ONE BATTERY AURORA IS USED FOR IDENTIFICATION of ifted CHILDREN OF ROUGHLY AGES CHART grigorenko sternberg it assesses nalytical creative AND PRACTICAL SKILLS IN THE verbal quantitative AND FIGURAL DOMAINS IT ALSO ontains A TEACHER AND PARENT ASSESSMENT of the children ANOTHER BATTERY THAT WE DEVISED or admissions purposes at A PRIVATE SCHOOL IN THE united STATES CHOATE ROSEMARY HALL CAN e USED FOR SELECTION OF STUDENTS FOR PRIVATE SECONDARY SCHOOL ADMISSIONS grigorenko et al so the general ideas DESCRIBED HERE CAN BE APPLIED at ANY LEVEL OF EDUCATION FROM the rimary GRADES UPWARD ONE MIGHT WONDER how one assesses ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS THAT SEEM so subjective the ssessment is through well DEVELOPED RUBRICS FOR EXAMPLE WE assess analytical responses on he BASIS OF THE EXTENT TO which they are A ANALYTICALLY SOUND B BALANCED c logical and d rganized we ASSESS CREATIVE RESPONSES ON THE basis of how A ORIGINAL AND B COMPELLING hey ARE AS WELL AS ON THE BASIS OF THEIR C APPROPRIATENESS TO THE TASK WITH which the stuents were presented we ASSESS PRACTICAL RESPONSES ON THE BASIS OF HOW FEASIBLE THEY are with espect to A TIME B PLACE C human d material resources AND E HOW PERSUASIVE THEY re we ASSESS WISDOM BASED RESPONSES ON the EXTENT TO WHICH THEY A promote a common ood by B BALANCING ONE S OWN interests with others interests and with larger interests c ver the long AND SHORT TERMS THROUGH D the INFUSION OF POSITIVE PROSOCIAL ETHICAL values teaching AND ASSESSING FOR WICS CAN we teach FOR WICS THE KINDS OF skills AND ATTITUDES THAT REALLY MATTERS IN LIFE AND IN JOBS here ARE MANY TECHNIQUES THAT CAN BE USED TO TEACH FOR wics sternberg GRIGORENKO STERNBERG JARVIN GRIGORENKO THESE techniques CAN BE USED IN ANY subjectmatter area AND AT ANY LEVEL TEACHING ANALYTICALLY MEANS ENCOURAGING STUDENTS TO a analyze b critique c judge d compare AND CONTRAST E EVALUATE AND f ASSESS WHEN TEACHERS REFER TO teaching for critcal thinking THEY TYPICALLY MEAN TEACHING FOR ANALYTICAL THINKING HOW DOES SUCH teaching ranslate into instructional and assessment ACTIVITIES CONSIDER VARIOUS EXAMPLES ACROSS the chool curriculum a analyze the development of the CHARACTER OF HEATHCLIFF IN WUTHERING heights literature B CRITIQUE THE DESIGN OF the EXPERIMENT JUST GONE OVER IN CLASS OR IN A READING showing that ertain plants grew BETTER IN DIM LIGHT THAN in bright sunlight biology c judge the artistic merts OF ROY LICHTENSTEIN S COMIC book ART DISCUSSING ITS STRENGTHS AS WELL AS ITS WEAKNESSES AS ine art art d compare AND CONTRAST THE RESPECTIVE NATURES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION AND he FRENCH REVOLUTION POINTING OUT WAYS BOTH IN WHICH THEY WERE SIMILAR AND THOSE IN WHICH hey were DIFFERENT HISTORY E EVALUATE THE validity OF THE FOLLOWING SOLUTION TO a mathematcal problem AND DISCUSS WEAKNESSES IN THE solution if there ARE ANY MATHEMATICS F ASSESS he strategy used BY THE WINNING PLAYER IN THE TENNIS MATCH YOU JUST observed stating what echniques SHE USED IN ORDER TO DEFEAT HER OPPONENT PHYSICAL EDUCATION teaching CREATIVELY MEANS ENCOURAGING STUDENTS TO A CREATE B INVENT C discover D IMAGINE IF E SUPPOSE that AND F PREDICT TEACHING FOR creativity requires teachers not nly to SUPPORT AND ENCOURAGE CREATIVITY BUT ALSO TO ROLE MODEL IT AND TO REWARD IT WHEN it is played sternberg LUBART STERNBERG WILLIAMS IN OTHER words teachers ed NOT ONLY TO TALK THE talk but ALSO TO WALK THE WALK consider some examples of instrucnal or assessment ACTIVITIES THAT ENCOURAGE STUDENTS TO think creatively A CREATE AN ALTERNATIVE ENDING TO THE SHORT STORY YOU JUST READ THAT REPRESENTS A different y things might HAVE GONE FOR THE MAIN CHARACTERS IN THE STORY LITERATURE b invent A DIALOGUE BETWEEN AN AMERICAN TOURIST IN PARIS AND A french man he encounters the STREET FROM WHOM HE IS ASKING DIRECTIONS ON HOW TO GET TO THE RUE PIGALLE french C DISCOVER THE FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICAL PRINCIPLE THAT UNDERLIES ALL OF the following probs each of which DIFFERS FROM THE OTHERS IN THE SURFACE STRUCTURE OF THE problem but t IN ITS DEEP STRUCTURE PHYSICS D IMAGINE IF THE GOVERNMENT of china keeps evolving r the COURSE OF THE NEXT YEARS IN MUCH THE SAME WAY it has BEEN EVOLVING WHAT DO YOU ieve THE GOVERNMENT OF CHINA WILL BE LIKE IN YEARS GOVERNMENT political science e ppose THAT YOU WERE TO DESIGN one ADDITIONAL INSTRUMENT TO BE PLAYED in a symphony orchesfor future COMPOSITIONS WHAT MIGHT THAT INSTRUMENT BE LIKE AND WHY MUSIC f predict anges that ARE LIKELY TO OCCUR IN the vocabulary or GRAMMAR OF SPOKEN SPANISH IN the border as of the rio GRANDE OVER THE NEXT YEARS as A RESULT OF CONTINUOUS INTERACTIONS between anish AND ENGLISH SPEAKERS LINGUISTICS TEACHING PRACTICALLY MEANS ENCOURAGING STUDENTS TO A APPLY B USE C put into prac d implement e employ AND F RENDER PRACTICAL WHAT THEY KNOW SUCH TEACHING MUST ate to the real practical NEEDS OF THE STUDENTS NOT JUST TO WHAT WOULD BE practical for indiuals OTHER THAN THE STUDENTS STERNBERG et al CONSIDER SOME EXAMPLES A APPLY formula FOR COMPUTING COMPOUND INTEREST TO A PROBLEM PEOPLE ARE LIKELY to face when nning for retirement economics math B USE YOUR KNOWLEDGE OF GERMAN TO GREET A NEW uaintance in berlin german C PUT INTO PRACTICE WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED FROM TEAMWORK football to making A CLASSROOM TEAM PROJECT SUCCEED PHYSICAL EDUCATION D IMPLEMENT A siness PLAN YOU HAVE WRITTEN IN A SIMULATED BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT BUSINESS e employ the mula for distance rate AND TIME TO COMPUTE A distance math f render practical a prosed design for A NEW BUILDING THAT WILL not work in the AESTHETIC CONTEXT OF THE SURROUNDING ildings ALL OF WHICH ARE AT least years old architecture teaching FOR WISDOM MEANS ENCOURAGING STUDENTS to A TRY TO FIND A common good b things FROM OTHERS POINTS OF VIEW AS WELL AS YOUR OWN c BALANCE YOUR OWN INTERESTS WITH those thers AND OF INSTITUTIONS D LOOK AT THE LONG TERM AS well AS THE SHORT TERM E ask how you can use positive ETHICAL VALUES INTO YOUR DECISION making AND F REALIZE THAT IN real life what is ctive AND OFTEN EVEN TRUE OR perceived to BE TRUE VARIES OVER TIME and place sternberg amples would BE A WHAT MIGHT BE A JUST SOLUTION FOR THE common good in the israeliestinian CONFLICT POLITICAL SCIENCE B DID native AMERICANS VIEW SETTLERS WHO CAME west settlers or AS INVADERS AND WHY HISTORY C SHOULD WALL STREET TRADERS get bonuses if they ve LOST MONEY FOR THEIR CLIENTS economics D HOW IS GLOBAL WARMING going to affect life on rth IN THE LONG TERM GEOLOGY CLIMATOLOGY E IS IT EVER ETHICAL TO BOMB ENEMY TERRITORIES ere CIVILIANS LIVE PHILOSOPHY F HOW DOES WHAT WORKS IN AN intimate relationship change r time psychology it is important to teach for wisdom because smart BUT FOOLISH PEOPLE ARE SUSCEPTIBLE to e or MORE OF SIX FALLACIES STERNBERG A UNREALISTIC OPTIMISM THEY BELIEVE they are smart that whatever they DO WILL WORK OUT JUST FINE REGARDLESS OF WHETHER IT really makes se B EGOCENTRISM THEY START TO view DECISIONS ONLY IN TERMS OF how the decisions benefit m C OMNISCIENCE THEY THINK THEY are all knowing they do not know what they do not ow D OMNIPOTENCE THEY THINK THEY CAN DO WHATEVER THEY WANT e invulnerability they hink they ARE SO SMART THEY CAN get away with ANYTHING THEY DO F ETHICAL disengagement hey believe that ethical behavior is important for others BUT NOT FOR THEMSELVES OUR view that we might HAVE SUCCESS IN TEACHING IN these ways DATES BACK AT LEAST TO study IN WHICH MY COLLABORATORS AND i gave A TEST THAT WE HAD devised to over high chool students ACROSS THE UNITED STATES IN order to select students ON THE BASIS OF ANALYTICAL reative and practical ABILITIES STERNBERG GRIGORENKO FERRARI CLINKENBEARD the dentification was prior to their BEING PLACED INTO SECTIONS TO TAKE A COLLEGE LEVEL SUMMER sychology COURSE WHEN WE DIVIDED THE students INTO SUCH GROUPS WE NOTICED something hat AT THE TIME WAS UNEXPECTED students in the high ANALYTICAL GROUP WHO EXCELLED IN the bilities measured BY CONVENTIONAL TESTS WERE FOR the MOST PART WHITE AND MIDDLE class see lso ceci greenfield heath many had been previously identified as gifted or OTHER PROGRAMS STUDENTS IN THE high creative AND HIGH PRACTICAL GROUP WERE ethnically iverse AND MANY HAD NEVER BEFORE been identified AS GIFTED THE QUESTION OF COURSE IS WHETHER THOSE IDENTIFIED AS STRONG IN THE ALTERNATIVE ways i e reatively or practically ACTUALLY PERFORMED AT HIGH LEVELS THE ANSWER WAS CLEAR WHEN stuents were taught in A WAY THAT MATCHED THEIR patterns of ABILITIES AT LEAST SOME OF the time hey EXCELLED IN OTHER WORDS THE creatively AND PRACTICALLY ORIENTED STUDENTS DID excel so long s THE WAY THEY WERE TAUGHT matched AT LEAST SOME OF THE time THE WAY THEY LEARNED GOOD eachers use A VARIETY OF TEACHING METHODS to reach DIVERSE LEARNING STYLES OF THEIR students so ny student taught in A WAY THAT IS RESPONSIVE to his or HER PATTERN OF ABILITIES CAN excel what effects DOES TEACHING FOR WICS HAVE on ACHIEVEMENT AFTER THIS STUDY MY colleagues nd I WENT ON TO SHOW that teaching to DIVERSE STYLES OF LEARNING MEMORY analytical cretive PRACTICAL WISDOM BASED DOES INDEED improve ACHIEVEMENT RELATIVE TO TEACHING THAT mphasizes just traditional memory ANALYTICAL PATTERNS OF LEARNING AND thinking grigorenko arvin sternberg sternberg et al sternberg et al i teach for wics in A COURSE IN THE PSYCHOLOGY department at tufts university the idea s THAT IF WE SELECT STUDENTS FOR WICS WE SHOULD TEACH ACCORDING TO WICS AS WELL so that how tudents ARE TAUGHT MATCHES HOW THEY ARE SELECTED THE COURSE IS open to undergraduates at ll levels in ALL FIELDS OF SPECIALIZATION AND HAS NO PREREQUISITES THE COURSE on leadership nvolves A TEXTBOOK ON THEORIES AND RESEARCH ON LEADERSHIP BUT ALSO A BOOK OF CASE STUDIES of eadership AND TWO BOOKS BY LEADERSHIP theorists ON THEIR OWN VIEWS ON leadership consider s well four ADDITIONAL FEATURES OF THE COURSE first in every CLASS EXCEPT THE FIRST AND the last A LEADER COMES AND SPEAKS to students for bout min on his or HER LEADERSHIP EXPERIENCES THE LEADERS COME FROM ALL DOMAINS OF life ncluding politics FINANCE MANAGEMENT THE ARTS SPORTS religion AND THE LIKE AN ADDITIONAL min IS THEN SPENT IN THE class ASKING QUESTIONS OF AND HAVING A DISCUSSION WITH THE LEADER tudents INTERACTIONS WITH THE LEADERS GIVE them A CHANCE TO DEVELOP AND also to challenge heir own beliefs about leadership second every CLASS EXCEPT THE LAST INVOLVES an ACTIVE LEADERSHIP EXERCISE FOR EXAMPLE in he first class a shill confederate joined the students AND PRETENDED TO BE ONE of them after went through the SYLLABUS THE SHILL CHALLENGED IT AND COMPLAINED THAT IT WAS inadequate n A VARIETY OF WAYS STUDENTS were AMAZED AT THE SHILL S AUDACITY WHEN HE WAS DONE with is complaints i thanked him AND THEN NOTED TO THE CLASS THAT EVERY LEADER SOONER or later onfronts public CHALLENGES TO HIS OR HER AUTHORITY THE QUESTION IS NOT WHETHER IT WILL OR WILL ot happen it will BUT RATHER HOW THE LEADER HANDLES SUCH CHALLENGES STUDENTS DIVIDED hemselves into three groups AND THEN SIMULATED HOW THEY would handle public challenges ANOTHER CLASS STUDENTS HAD TO hire A DEAN THEY DIVIDED THEMSELVES into three groups e simulated the formation of A VISION STATEMENT THE SECOND simulated a job interview and third simulated A PERSUASION INTERVIEW TO ENTICE the selected CANDIDATE TO COME IN YET other CLASS STUDENTS SIMULATED HOW THEY would DEAL WITH AN INCOMPETENT TEAM member d in ANOTHER EACH OF THREE GROUPS formulated A PROPOSAL TO IMPROVE THE university they n HAD TO PERSUADE THE CLASS ACTING AS FUNDERS TO FUND their project third students HAD TO DO BOTH INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP PROJECTS THE INDIVIDUAL projects olved their APPLYING LEADERSHIP CONCEPTS TO THEIR own LEADERSHIP AND THE LEADERSHIP OF ers whom they interviewed the GROUP PROJECT INVOLVED THEIR APPLYING principles from course to analyzing the leadership of A MAJOR KNOWN LEADER SOME of their choices were l CLINTON FORMER PRESIDENT OF THE united states BILL GATES FORMER CEO OF microsoft and nneth lay former CEO OF THE NOW DEFUNCT AND FAILED ENERGY COMPANY ENRON fourth exams EMPHASIZED USING WHAT ONE HAD LEARNED THE FINAL EXAMINATION FOR exam involved the story of A LEADER FROM THE TIME SHE FIRST TOOK A LEADERSHIP job until the time e was CONSIDERING LEAVING IT THE STUDENTS had to analyze her leadership performance at ry step ALONG THE WAY IN SUM teaching FOR WICS SEEMS TO IMPROVE school achievement at A VARIETY OF LEVELS AND A VARIETY OF SUBJECT MATTER areas this improvement seems to occur regardless of the way which achievement is measured because teaching for wics enables students to capitalize strengths and to COMPENSATE FOR OR CORRECT WEAKNESSES conclusion cs is of COURSE NOT THE ONLY MODEL that can BE APPLIED TO IDENTIFICATION ADMISSIONS truction AND ASSESSMENT GARDNER HAS PRESENTED a well known model MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES THAT IS APPEALING ALTHOUGH PERHAPS IN NEED OF rigorous empirical t FEUERSTEIN HAS PRESENTED A MODEL of cognitive modifiability through medid learning experience that ALSO CAN BE APPLIED IN schools IN EARLIER TIMES MANY SCHOLARS nd THE MODEL OF GUILFORD ATTRACTIVE ALTHOUGH ITS EMPIRICAL FOUNDATIONS HAVE proved estionable BECAUSE OF THE USE OF PROCRUSTEAN ROTATIONS OF FACTORIAL AXES baltes has sented A MODEL OF INTELLECTUAL SELECTION optimization AND COMPENSATION THAT ALSO COULD ADAPTED FOR SCHOOL USE AND HAS BEEN USED IN COGNITIVE education of the ELDERLY E G SCHAIE WILLIS ANDERSON S MODEL OF ADAPTIVE control of human ught ACT ALSO PRESENTS POSSIBILITIES FOR use in cognitive education WICS THUS PROVIDES ONE AMONG A NUMBER OF UNIFIED MODELS for identification admisns instruction and assessment is wics in any sense better than competing models at is really a question for empirical research we have done a great amount of empirical earch perhaps more than that done on some competing models such as gardner s but tainly much less than that done for over years on g based theories our hope is that pirical research will continue to find ways of better supplementing g based measures the wics model can BE USED AT ANY LEVEL AND FOR ANY SUBJECT MATTER an advantage of MODEL IS THAT IT GOES BEYOND MORE TRADITIONAL MODELS EMPHASIZING memory and analytilearning and as A RESULT ENABLES ALL STUDENTS to CAPITALIZE ON STRENGTHS AND COMPENSATE or CORRECT WEAKNESSES IT FURTHER REDUCES ethnic AND OTHER DIFFERENCES IN PERFORMANCE mmonly found in traditional ASSESSMENTS IT THUS PROVIDES A basis for cognitive education t REPRESENTS THE REALITIES OF THE st CENTURY RATHER THAN THOSE OF a bygone era references ANDERSON J R THE ARCHITECTURE of cognition CAMBRIDGE MA HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS anderson j r the ADAPTIVE NATURE OF HUMAN CATEGORIZATION psychological review ANDERSON J R RULES OF THE MIND HILLSDALE NJ ERLBAUM anderson j r act a simple theory of complex cognition american psychologist altes P B ON THE INCOMPLETE ARCHITECTURE OF HUMAN ONTOGENY SELECTION optimization AND COMPENSATION AS FOUNDATIONS OF developmental theory american psychologist eci s j on intelligence cambridge ma cambridge university press hart h grigorenko E L STERNBERG R J IDENTIFICATION THE AURORA BATTERY IN j A PLUCKER C M CALLAHAN eds critical issues AND PRACTICES IN GIFTED EDUCATION pp waco tx prufrock DEWEY J EXPERIENCE AND EDUCATION new york free press dickens C HARD TIMES FOR THESE times new york simon schuster original work published euerstein r the dynamic ASSESSMENT OF RETARDED PERFORMERS THE learning potential ASSESSMENT DEVICE THEORY INSTRUMENTS AND techniques baltimore university park press euerstein r instrumental enrichment AN INTERVENTION PROGRAM FOR COGNITIVE modifiability baltimore university park press gardner h FRAMES OF MIND THE THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES NEW YORK BASIC BOOKS GARDNER H MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES THE THEORY IN PRACTICE new york BASIC BOOKS GARDNER H ARE there ADDITIONAL INTELLIGENCES THE CASE FOR naturalist spiritual AND EXISTENTIAL INTELLIGENCES IN J kane ed education information AND TRANSFORMATION PP UPPER SADDLE river nj prentice hall greenfield p m you can t take it with you why ability assessments don t cross cultures american psychologist GRIGORENKO E L JARVIN L diffley r goodyear j shanahan e j sternberg r j are ssats and gpa enough a theory based approach to predicting academic success in high school journal of educational psychology grigorenko E L JARVIN L STERNBERG r j school BASED TESTS OF THE TRIARCHIC theory of INTELLIGENCE THREE SETTINGS THREE SAMPLES THREE SYLLABI CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY GUILFORD J P COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY s AMBIGUITIES SOME SUGGESTED REMEDIES PSYCHOLOGICAL review heath s b ways with words new york cambridge university press hedlund j forsythe g b horvath j a williams w m snook s sternberg r j identifying and assessing tacit knowledge understanding the practical intelligence of military leaders leadership quarterly HEDLUND J WILT J M nebel k r ASHFORD S J STERNBERG R j ASSESSING PRACTICAL INTELLIGENCE IN BUSINESS school admissions A SUPPLEMENT TO THE GRADUATE management ADMISSIONS TEST LEARNING AND INDIVIDUAL differences HEZLETT S KUNCEL N VEY A ONES D CAMPBELL J camara w j the effectiveness OF THE SAT IN PREDICTING success EARLY AND LATE IN COLLEGE A COMPREHENSIVE META ANALYSIS PAPER presented at the ANNUAL MEETING OF THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF MEASUREMENT IN EDUCATION seattle wa obrin j l camara w j milewski g b THE UTILITY OF THE SAT i and sat ii for admissions decisions in california and the nation college board report no new york college entrance examination board okagaki l sternberg r j parental beliefs and children s school performance child development avitch d september CRITICAL THINKING YOU NEED KNOWLEDGE boston globe a ogoff b apprenticeship in thinking new york oxford university press chaie K W WILLIS S L CAN DECLINE IN INTELLECTUAL FUNCTIONING in the ELDERLY BE REVERSED DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY midt f l hunter j e the validity and utility of selection methods in personnel psychology practical and theoretical implications of years of research findings psychological bulletin mler s E GRIGORENKO E L JARVIN l sternberg r J USING THE THEORY OF successful intelligence as A BASIS FOR AUGMENTING AP exams in psychology AND STATISTICS CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY mler S STERNBERG R J GRIGORENKO E L JARVIN L SHARPES D K USING THE THEORY of successful intelligence as A FRAMEWORK FOR DEVELOPING ASSESSMENTS in AP PHYSICS CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY rnberg r J SUCCESSFUL INTELLIGENCE NEW YORK plume rnberg r J WHY SCHOOLS SHOULD TEACH for wisdom the BALANCE THEORY OF WISDOM IN educational settings educational psychologist rnberg r j wisdom intelligence AND CREATIVITY SYNTHESIZED NEW YORK cambridge university press rnberg r j FOOLISHNESS IN R J STERNBERG j jordan EDS HANDBOOK OF WISDOM PSYCHOLOGICAL perspectives pp new york cambridge university press rnberg r j how CAN WE SIMULTANEOUSLY ENHANCE BOTH ACADEMIC EXCELLENCE AND DIVERSITY COLLEGE and university rnberg r j FINDING STUDENTS WHO ARE WISE practical AND CREATIVE THE CHRONICLE OF higher education b rnberg r j in press a THE RAINBOW AND KALEIDOSCOPE PROJECTS A NEW PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH TO undergraduate admissions european psychologist rnberg r j in press b selecting the best a new approach to college admissions CAMBRIDGE MA HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS rnberg r j coffin l a in press admitting and developing new leaders for a changing world new england journal of higher education rnberg r j forsythe g B HEDLUND J HORVATH J SNOOK S WILLIAMS W M et al practical INTELLIGENCE IN EVERYDAY LIFE NEW york cambridge university press rnberg r j grigorenko E L TEACHING FOR SUCCESSFUL intelligence nd ed THOUSAND OAKS CA CORWIN PRESS rnberg r j grigorenko E L FERRARI M CLINKENBEARD p A TRIARCHIC ANALYSIS OF AN APTITUDE TREATMENT INTERACTION EUROPEAN JOURNAL of psychological assessment rnberg r j grigorenko E L ZHANG L F STYLES OF LEARNING AND THINKING matter in instruction AND ASSESSMENT PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL science rnberg R J JARVIN L GRIGORENKO E L TEACHING FOR WISDOM intelligence creativity AND SUCCESS THOUSAND OAKS CA corwin rnberg R J LUBART T I DEFYING THE CROWD CULTIVATING CREATIVITY in A CULTURE OF CONFORMITY NEW york free press rnberg R J THE RAINBOW PROJECT COLLABORATORS THE RAINBOW PROJECT ENHANCING THE SAT THROUGH ASSESSMENTS OF ANALYTICAL PRACTICAL AND CREATIVE SKILLS intelligence rnberg r j torff B GRIGORENKO E L TEACHING triarchically improves school ACHIEVEMENT JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY rnberg R J WILLIAMS W M HOW TO DEVELOP STUDENT CREATIVITY ALEXANDRIA VA ASSOCIATION FOR SUPERVISION and curriculum development nowledgments i am grateful to my collaborators at the pace center first at yale and then at tufts o have made this work possible i especially thank dr elena grigorenko and dr linda jarvin for their ny collaborations rrespondence regarding this article should be directed to robert j sternberg longfellow place boston ma e mail robert sternberg tufts edu
The color option changes the font color of the highlighted text. It should respect any color that would normally work with CSS. Note, that the higlighted words are also wrapped by an HTML span code with id = ngram. As a result, css could be used to further stylize the highlighted text.
t1 <- "here is some text. I'd like to write about a few things. Then I'm going to compare what I wrote here with what I'm going to write in a little bit. After that, I'm going to make a function to look at the documents side by side, and bold the ngrams that are the same between the texts."
t2 <-"And some more text for you. This time I'm not as certain what I'm going to say, but I'm going to compare what I write here with what I wrote before. I'll do that in a little. The purpose is to get some text that I can use to make a report that lines up the documents, showing which ngrams were the same."
out <- ngrams_analysis(t1,t2,range = 2:5, meta=c("A title","B title"))
# print out results below
ngrams_report(out, print_n = 5, highlight_n = "ngram5", color="blue")| ngram | proportion | count | total_unique |
|---|---|---|---|
| ngram2 | 0.1212121 | 12 | 99 |
| ngram3 | 0.0754717 | 8 | 106 |
| ngram4 | 0.0360360 | 4 | 111 |
| ngram5 | 0.0180180 | 2 | 111 |
going to compare what i
i’m going to compare what
NA
NA
NA
here is some text. i’d like to write about a few things. then i’m GOING TO COMPARE WHAT I wrote here with what i’m going to write in a little bit. after that, i’m going to make a function to look at the documents side by side, and bold the ngrams that are the same between the texts.
and some more text for you. this time i’m not as certain what i’m going to say, but i’m GOING TO COMPARE WHAT I write here with what i wrote before. i’ll do that in a little. the purpose is to get some text that i can use to make a report that lines up the documents, showing which ngrams were the same.